In my diploma thesis, I deal with an issue of effective corporate tax rates. The effective tax rate expresses the real tax burden of companies. The effective tax rate is different from the statutory tax rate due to the impact of tax legislation. The aim of my diploma thesis is to analyze the impact of changes in legislation on the level of effective tax rate for companies divided by size and for companies divided by industry. The first chapter describes the crisis in the world and its consequences on taxation in the Czech Republic. In the second chapter I analyze the impact of legislative changes on the level of effective tax rate during the monitored period, i.e. in the years 2006-2016. The third chapter deals with the classification of methods of calculating effective tax rates. In the last chapter, I analyze the impact of changes in legislation on the development of effective tax rates for companies divided by size and for companies divided by industry.

This master's thesis presents a comparison of the tax burden in the Czech Republic and in Germany. The first two chapters cover the major types of taxes and differences in the tax systems of both countries. In the third part of the thesis is about key features of the Czech and the German Income Tax Act and it is primarily focused on taxation of employment. The practical part is compared to taxation of certain types of taxpayers at different levels of the average wage.

This work is focused on effective tax rates of the personal income tax from a microeconomic perspective. The work analyses francophone countries, namely Belgium, France, Canada, Luxembourg, Greece, Switzerland and also the Czech Republic. The first chapter defines elements of the personal income tax, social insurance contributions and the effective tax rate along with examples of its calculation. The second chapter describes the personal income tax and social insurance contributions in chosen countries and calculates the effective tax rate using collected information. The effective tax rate is calculated for six sample taxpayers with different levels of average wage. The final chapter compares, according to sample taxpayers, effective tax rates including only income tax or social security contributions payed by employees, and at the end the effective tax rate as a whole.

The diploma thesis focused on international tax planning and tax optimization. The diploma thesis specifies what is an international tax planning and underlines its importance in these days. On theoretical knowlege the diploma thesis summarizes key factors that should entrepreneurs in international tax planning and optimization to take into account. End of the thesis presents proposal the progress of the process of international tax planning and also on the particular case.

The aim of this thesis is to compare effective income tax rate in Czech and Slovak republic. After introduction follows chapter which describes the tax systems in both countries with focus on personal income tax and social insurance. The third chapter defines indicators of effective labour taxation which are used for international comparison. Chapter four is comparing effective labour taxation in Czech and Slovak republic based on indicators defined in previous chapter. The fifth chapter is analysing inequality of income distribution and influence of income tax on redistribution. The progressivity of personal income tax in Czech and Slovak republic is measured by interval and global progressivity method. The conclusion is summarizing the outcomes of the thesis and suggests improvements for Czech tax system.

本研究以1999年至2005年中國上市公司財務資料，探討影響中國上市公司有效稅率之決定因素。本文的實證結果發現中國全體上市公司樣本的平均有效稅率僅達14.14%，遠低於中國稅法規定33%的名目稅率，顯示上市公司普遍享有區域及行業優渥的租稅優惠，實際所得稅負並不高。其中以海南市、上海市的有效稅率最低，而西部偏遠地區的有效稅率為最高，顯示區域間租稅負擔不均之現象。採掘業公司平均有效稅率高達25%，農林牧漁業及信息技術業的平均有效稅率在10%以下，也反映產業間的稅負分配受到政府產業發展的租稅獎勵政策之影響。此外，近年中國會計制度積極與國際會計準則趨同，企業依財會準則所計提之資產減損準備在稅務上不能列報扣除，使公司須繳納較高之有效稅率。 本研究也發現中國上市公司的股權結構與其有效稅率間具有顯著的相關性，國家持股比率較高者，租稅規劃意願低，有效稅率較高；而外資持股比率較高者及有發行B股或H股的公司，享有較多的租稅優惠及有較積極的租稅規劃傾向，有效稅率則較低。最後，本文也發現一些重要的中國企業特性、財稅差異項目與公司有效稅率關聯性之實證證據，中國上市公司的企業規模與有效稅率間，呈現正向關係，符合政治成本假說。獲利愈高的公司，其有效稅率也亦高。公司資本資產密度與財務槓桿的稅盾效果並不顯著，研究支出之投入與有效稅率呈負相關。營業費用比率較高之企業，受到稅法對於多項費用列報限額標準之影響，如罰款支出、贊助費、非公益、救濟性捐贈支出、廣告費、宣傳費、業務招待費以及職工薪金等，也有較高之有效稅率。企業獲配股利所得及依權益法認列的投資收益較多者，在稅法上毋須列入課稅所得之金額較高，故其有效稅率較低。上述中國上市公司的企業特性與有效稅率之關聯性，提供了中國企業經營的租稅成本深受中國會計、租稅制度、公司特性以及商業環境影響之實證證據。 / This study investigates the effects of Chinese accounting standards and tax system on the corporate effective tax rates (ETRs) of china listed companies. Despite that the statutory tax rate of China income tax law is 33%, we found the average ETR of China listed companies is only about 14.14% during our sample period spanning from 1999 to 2005, suggesting that most listed companies across various areas and industries may enjoy substantial tax incentives. The empirical results show that the companies in Shanghai and Hainan have lower average ETRs then those in other areas. Especially, the agriculture, forestry, herding, fishery industries and the information technology industries have the lowest average ETRs of below 10%, possibly due to that Chinese government provides substantial tax incentives for both industries. Further, to converge with the international accounting standards, China gradually phased-in the accounting for asset impairments in 1998 and 2001, requiring listed companies to recognize the impairment losses when the fair values of assets are below their book values. However, the unrealized asset impairment losses are not deductible in filing income tax returns, resulting in that firms reporting greater asset impairment losses in financial statements are more likely to bear higher ETRs, ceteris paribus. In addition, we also found there is a significant relationship between China companies’ ownership structure and corporate ETRs. Ceteris paribus, companies having greater state-shares are more likely to have greater ETRs while companies having greater foreign institute-shares and companies issuing B-shares or H-shares are more likely to have lower ETRs. Finally, we also documented evidence on the relationship between Chinese firms’ characteristics and corporate ETRs. Chinese large firms are more likely to have greater ETRs, supporing the political cost hypothesis. Due to several limitations on claiming operating expenses to be tax-deductible items, firms with greater operating expenses are more likely to have greater non-tax-deductible expenditures and hence tend to have higher ETRs. Finally, to alleviate double taxation on dividend income, dividend income received by the investment companies is tax-exempt to the extent that the invested companies have paid corporate income tax on the dividends distributed to the investment companies, and unrealized investment income accrued by the equity method is not taxable income to the investment companies until distributed to them. Consequently, firms having greater dividend income and investment income accrued by the equity method are more likely to have lower ETRs. Moreover we also find that the tax reform in 2002 make average ETRs increasing. The companies listing in Shenzhen Stock Exchange have lower average ETRs then those in Shanghai Stock Exchange. The results of this study provide empirical evidence on that the Chinese accounting standards and tax systems have a significant impact on the tax costs and distribution of tax burdens of Chinese listed companies.

本研究以2000年至2006年中國大陸上市公司之財務資料及股價資料，探討中國上市公司是否因租稅優惠而負擔隱含稅，及其負擔之隱含稅與有效稅率、股東權益稅前報酬率、市場結構及產業別之關係。實證結果顯示，中國大陸上市公司有效稅率之平均值遠低於其稅法上之名目稅率，顯示上市公司整體而言因稅法而享有租稅優惠，其中以農林漁牧業與信息技術業之有效稅率最低，反映中國扶植農業以及獎勵高科技產業之租稅政策。上市公司隱含稅率之平均值約為17.91%，顯示在中國大陸經濟成長率高之市場下，其上市公司仍須負擔隱含稅，且實證結果發現中國上市公司之有效稅率與隱含稅率呈顯著正向關係，即當有效稅率下降時，隱含稅率將會相對提高，呈現如Scholes and Wolfson(1992)所提出之隱含稅理論。 本研究實證結果亦發現，中國上市公司之股東權益稅前報酬率與隱含稅負間呈現顯著負向關係，即享受租稅優惠較多的公司，因負擔隱含稅成本，故整體報酬率未必高於享有較少租稅優惠的公司。非製造業公司之市場結構變數與隱含稅率間具有顯著關係性，即市場集中度越高時，廠商的市場支配力越大，也就越接近壟斷市場，造成該產業租稅優惠隱含稅負之負擔者多為消費者，而公司負擔之隱含稅則相對較低。 / This study uses financial and stock price data of the listed companies in China from 2000 to 2006, to examine if the listed companies have to bear implicit taxes because of tax preferential treatments, and to examine the relationship between implicit taxes and effective tax rates. The empirical results indicate that the average of ETRs of listed companies in China is lower than the statutory tax rate, indicating that overall listed Chinese companies have enjoyed substantial preferential tax treatments. The ETRs of the companies of agriculture and information technological industries are the lowest ones of all industries, reflecting China's tax policy aimed at developing agriculture and hi-tech industries. The average of implicit tax rates of listed companies in China is about 17.91%, indicating that listed companies in a high economics growth market, such as China, still have to bear implicit taxes. The empirical results show that implicit taxes are negatively related to ETRs, and the results support the implicit tax theory by Scholes and Wolfson(1992).The empirical results indicate the relationship between implicit tax and PEROEs is negatively, meaning the returns of tax-favored companies are less than tax-disfavored ones. The variables of market structures are significantly related to implicit tax, meaning the more market power the companies have, the less implicit tax they will bear. The empirical results of this study have implications for the government to further use tax incentives as a vehicle to stimulate economic development.

The aim of this master thesis is to compare the tax burden of income from employment in the Czech Republic and Austria and to calculate the amount of tax paid by a tax resident of the Czech Republic on foreign income. In the theoretical part, there are mentioned basic informations about the tax system of the Czech Republic and Austria. First of all the issue is a way to determine the tax base, what tax rates are in each country and wheater the tax can be reduced by some amounts. In the practical, the knowledge is applied to the calculation of payroll tax in the Czech Repub-ic and Austria. It compares the differences in the calculation and the amount of tax in both countries and evaluates the tax burden on the gross income of a resident of the Czech Repub-lic working abroad. It also describes the method of taxation of foreign income in the Czech Republic. It was found that the income tax burden in Austria is higher than in the Czech Republic. In the Czech Republic, the effective rate even reaches negative values - the tax bonus is paid out. Considering the high tax rates in Austria, this situation will never occur.

美國的租稅正義公民會社(Citizens for Tax Jusitce)在一九八五年發表一篇震撼美國政府、企業界與學術界的研究報告，文章中指出美國最大約兩百五十家大企業中，有半數以上，在一九八一年到一九八五年當中 ，至少有一年未納一毛錢的聯邦所得稅，或者甚至收到聯邦的退稅款。這篇報告引起美國財經學者與會計學者對公司租稅負擔的熱烈探討，亦對美國國會通過一九八六年租稅改革法案(the Tax Reform Act of 1986)取消投資扣抵、擴大稅基並加強最低稅負(alternative minimum tax)之稽徵有重要的影響。 　　本文之主要研究目的在於探討我國上市公司之營利事業所得稅負擔，是否受到企業規模、產業別以及稅制變化之影響。本研究使用我國教育部電子計算機中心提供之「台灣股票上市公司財務報表資料庫」，取出自民國七十三年到民國八十一年連續九年間，相同八十家上市公司所構成之縱查資料（longitudinal data或panel data），利用二元固定影響模型(two-way fixed effects model)等方法進行分析，發現上市公司之規模越大有效稅率越低（租稅負擔越低），顯示較大的上市公司可能運用較大的政治力量來減輕其租稅負擔，此結果代表用租稅來反映政治成本的政治成本假說(political cost hypothesis)不適用於我國的上市公司。在財務會計的研究上，經常以政治成本假說為基礎來解釋經理人員為何採用可降低當期盈餘的會計方法，亦即假設政治成本假說為正確，則企業規模愈大，愈容易受到政治上的監督（例如稅捐單位的嚴格審查），其政治成本愈大，為了避免這種政治成本，規模愈大約企業愈可能採用降低當期盈餘的會計方法。但是由本文的研究結果顯示，同租稅來表示政治成本的政治成本假說在我國並不成立，因此，未來有關之研究，在解釋我國公司規模對會計方法之選擇的影響時，不能直接從政治成本假說的觀點來解釋。 　　本文亦參考國外有關文獻，將我國與美國上市公司同期間(1986~1989)的租稅負擔加以比較，發現我國上市公司的有效稅率低於美國，但其主要原因為我國上市公司有虧損所引起。 　　本文另外亦使用產業的虛擬變數來分析不同產業是否有不同的租稅負擔，檢定結果顯示產業別對租稅負擔有顯著的影響。最後，本文比較民國七十五年營所稅自30%降為25%與實施加值稅前後，公司租稅負擔的變化情形，發現七十五年稅制變動後，規模愈大之上市公司須繳愈多的營利事業所得稅。 / A 1985 study by Citizens for Tax Justice examined the corpor-ate income tax burden of 250 largest U.S. corporations. They found that almost half of the largest corporations paid absolutely nothing in federal income taxes, or received tax rebates, in at least one of the four years from 1981 to 1984.This thesis intends to examine the income tax burden of public companies in Taiwan. In particular, the thesis investigates whether firm size, specific industry and tax system change will affect the income tax burden of public (listed) corporations. Financial statement data of the public corporations were obtained from the Econometric Programm- ing System (EPS) data base provided by the Ministry of Education. The main sample consists of eighty corporations that appear in all nine years over the 1984-1992 period. 　　To control for individual company and time heterogeneity and reduce omitted variable bias, fixed effects models are employed in this study. Using a two-way fixed effects model, the result shows that the larger the corporation's size the lower the effective tax rate (the lower the corporation's tax burden). It indicates that larger corporations may have more political power to reduce their tax burden. The finding suggests that political cost hypothesis is not justified in Taiwan's public corporations from the standpoint of effective tax rates. 　　This thesis also analyzes whether tax burden varies across industries. The analysis shows that a corporation's tax burden is related to the industry in which the corporation operates. Finally, this study examines the changes of corporation's tax burden pre and post 1986 when the highest statutory business income tax rate was reduced from 30 percent to 25 percent and the value-added tax was adopted in the same year. The analysis indicates that after the tax system change in 1986, large corporations paid more business income taxes.

本研究分成兩部分，研究對象為中國大陸之上市公司，第一部分以2004至2009年之財務資料，探討2008年中國大陸企業所得稅法之實施對中國大陸上市公司平均有效稅率之影響；第二部分以1998至2009年之財務資料，探討中國大陸上市公司是否為了因應企業所得稅法實施對有效稅率的影響，而從事租稅誘因盈餘管理之行為。 第一部分之實證結果發現，中國大陸上市公司之平均有效稅率在2008年企業所得稅法實施後有顯著的下降，表示中國大陸上市公司之有效稅率隨著名目稅率降低而下降。外資持股比例超過20%之上市公司（定義為外資企業），其2008年後之有效稅率上升，且內外資企業之其平均有效稅率之差異有縮小之趨勢。屬於高科技產業之上市公司在2008年企業所得稅法實施後，其有效稅率並未下降；但與除了農林牧漁業外之其他產業相比，高科技產業之上市公司其有效稅率較低。第二部分之實證結果發現，在2008年有效稅率下降之上市公司，其於2008年後的裁決性應計項目較大，有將盈餘遞延認列之傾向。 / This study consists of two research issues. The first part uses the financial statement and capital structure data of China listed companies from 2004 to 2009, to investigate the effects of the implementation of the Law of the People’s Republic of China on Enterprise Income Tax in 2008(hereafter 2008 Income Tax Law). And the second part which uses the financial and capital structure data of China listed companies from 1998 to 2009 investigates if China listed companies take the action of earnings management in response to the implementation of the 2008 Income Tax Law. The empirical findings of the first part show that the average ETRs of China listed companies declined after the implementation of the 2008 Income Tax Law. The listed companies whose proportion of foreign ownership is above 20% (defined as foreign enterprises) increased ETRs after 2008 and the differences in ETRs between domestic enterprises and foreign enterprises are reduced gradually. Further, the average ETRs of China listed companies of information technology industry do not appear to be decreased after the implementation of the 2008 Income Tax Law. However, besides the agriculture, forestry, herding, fishery industries, listed companies of information technology industries remain to have lower average ETRs after implementation of the 2008 Income Tax Law. The empirical findings of the second part show that China listed companies whose average ETRs decreased in 2008 appeared to have greater discretionary accruals after 2008, suggesting those companies shifting earnings to 2008.