The mechanical strength of plant tissues and organs can be attributed to specific properties of the cell wall. In many cases, in order to establish their final shape, cells deposit various cell wall materials in a localized manner. This is achieved by highly organized action of the endomembrane system which is essential for biosynthesis and secretion of cell wall proteins and polysaccharides. The exocyst complex is a conserved tethering complex in eukaryotes and it is involved in tethering of secretory vesicles to the sites of secretion at the plasma membrane. In this study, we address several aspects of the plant exocyst complex architecture and cell wall development using molecular biology techniques and advanced confocal microscopy. We demonstrated that two SEC10 exocyst subunits are present in Arabidopsis thaliana and share redundant functions. We also showed that the architecture of the plant exocyst complex shares several structural features with the yeast one. We demonstrated the importance of the functional EXO84b exocyst subunit for normal tracheary element development and showed that the main constituents of the secondary cell walls are deposited normally in exocyst mutants. We described a clear difference in the exocyst microtubule-independent dynamics in epidermal cells vs. cell type...

<p> The plant cytoskeleton is commonly considered a vital component of cell growth and development; however, it also plays a critical role in plant immunity. During plant immunity, the cytoskeleton orchestrates rapid and precise immune-associated processes. For instance, the cytoskeleton mobilizes and orients the movement of organelles, proteins, and chemical signaling. To counter plant immunity, bacterial pathogens deliver virulence proteins, known as T3Es (type III effectors), into plant cells through a needle-like apparatus called the type III secretion system (T3SS). A novel T3E, called RipU, interacts with the cytoskeleton. Data has shown that RipU co-localizes with cytoskeletal markers in tobacco leaves. Ectopic expression of RipU can suppress PTI responses like ROS bursts or seedling growth inhibition. Tomato plants inoculated with <em>Rs</em> K60 lacking RipU showed less wilting and root colonization, suggesting that RipU plays a role in pathogenesis and virulence. Furthermore, inducible expression of RipU in Arabidopsis dramatically alters plant development. These plants have wavy roots, branching root hairs, and underdeveloped true leaves. Our results suggest that by targeting the cytoskeleton, RipU contributes to <em>Rs</em> K60s pathogenicity and virulence. </p>

No description available.

The major physiological function of hemoglobin (Hb) is to bind, transport and deliver oxygen to tissues; made efficient by endogenous effectors, such as protons and 2,3-diphosphoglycerate. Synthetic allosteric effectors of Hb (AEHs) are also known to modulate Hb oxygen affinity, showing potential for the treatment of sickle cell disease (SCD) and ischemic-related diseases. In this project, AEHs which increase Hb affinity for oxygen, including derivatives of the anti-sickling compounds, 5HMF and benzaldehydes, as well as an AEH that decreases Hb affinity for oxygen, RSR-13, were synthesized for their effects on Hb oxygen binding property and their capability to release NO from substituted nitrate ester moieties. Compounds that were found to increase Hb affinity for oxygen were further tested for their anti-sickling activities. Structural studies were carried out to gain insight into the compound’s mode of action. Development of these agents could be a therapeutic strategy for SCD or ischemic-related diseases.

O transplante renal é atualmente o tratamento de escolha para pacientes com doença renal crônica em estágio 5, devido aos seus melhores resultados na morbimortalidade e melhor qualidade de vida dos pacientes, quando comparado com o tratamento dialítico. No entanto, apesar desses resultados positivos, a sobrevida dos enxertos renais em longo prazo não se modificou. As principais causas de falências tardias do transplante renal são as alterações crônicas do enxerto, caracterizadas por componentes de rejeição crônica e efeitos nefrotóxicos relacionados aos inibidores da calcineurina. O desenvolvimento de estratégias visando modular o sistema imunológico, interferindo no balanço entre mecanismos efetores e reguladores, capazes de induzir a aceitação do órgão (tolerância) seria a melhor alternativa para este cenário. No entanto, os mecanismos imunológicos envolvidos no processo da imunorregulação são pouco compreendidos, o que dificulta a identificação de casos tolerantes e a definição de estratégias para a sua modulação. Dentre as possíveis moléculas envolvidas no processo de imunomodulação, destacam-se a Forkhead Box P3 (FOXp3), marcador de células reguladoras e a enzima indoleamina 2,3 dioxigenase (IDO), reconhecida recentemente como tendo função central na tolerância materno-fetal. No presente estudo, foram utilizadas técnicas de imunohistoquímica para identificar linfócitos T efetores (CD3+), FOXp3 e IDO em biópsias de aloenxerto renal e correlacionar sua expressão com a evolução clínica do enxerto 12 meses após a biópsia. A relação entre células reguladoras e efetoras foi avaliada pelas relações FOXp3/CD3 e IDO/CD3. Devido à limitação do reconhecimento e do diagnóstico de casos de tolerância, só foi possível analisar a expressão destes marcadores em 1 único caso de paciente tolerante. Por outro lado, o estudo do perfil da expressão destes marcadores em outras situações clínicas deve contribuir para a melhor compreensão dos mecanismos envolvidos. Neste contexto, no presente estudo foram analisadas 63 biópsias de enxerto renal em diferentes situações clínicas: enxerto Sem Rejeição (SemRA; n=13), Rejeição Aguda (RA; n=21) e lesões crônicas (LC; n=29) além de 1 caso de paciente com diagnóstico clínico de tolerância operacional (Tolerante; n=1). Este paciente evoluiu com disfunção do enxerto, reiniciou terapia dialítica com a descontinuação do tratamento imunossupressor e após 2 anos em programa de hemodiálise, recuperou a função do enxerto, sendo, então, submetido a biópsia do enxerto renal. As biópsias incluídas foram subdivididas de acordo com a Classificação de Banff-09. As rejeições agudas mediadas por linfócitos T foram classificadas em RA-Banff I (n=15) e RA-Banff II (n=6). Os casos com Lesões Crônicas também foram subdivididos de acordo com a Classificação de Banff-09 em Fibrose intersticial/Atrofia tubular (FIAT; n=15) e Rejeição Crônica Ativa (RCA; n=14). RESULTADOS: analisado isoladamente, o caso Tolerante apresentou um número expressivo de células CD3+ (814 cel/mm2) e FOXp3+ (100,9 cel/mm2), assim como elevada relação FOXp3/CD3 (12,4x102).No entanto, apresentou uma baixa expressão de IDO (0,41% área marcada).Nos casos do grupo RA o número de células CD3+. foi significativamente maior que em LC e SemRA (973±127 cel/mm2; 242±43 cel/mm2 e 0,7 ± 0,4 cel/mm2, respectivamente; p<0,001 vs LC e p<0,0001 vs SemRA). Células CD3+ foram detectadas em todos os compartimentos estudados: interstício, túbulos, vasos, e glomérulos no grupo RA e no grupo LC. Comparando os grupos, houve predomínio de células CD3+ no interstício (p<0,0001) do grupo RA. Na subanálise segundo a Classificação de Banff-09, não houve diferença entres os subgrupos de RA na análise de células CD3+ por compartimentos. Por outro lado, na análise do grupo LC, no subgrupo RCA foram detectadas significativamente mais células CD3+ que em FIAT no interstício (322±66 cel/mm2 vs 145±32 cel/mm2; p<0,05) e nos túbulos (30,7±10 cel/mm2 vs 6±2 cel/mm2; p<0,05). O número de células FOXp3+ foi significativamente maior nos casos do grupo RA (43±10 cel/mm2) comparado com LC e SemRA (20±4 cel/mm2 e 0,1±0,1 cel/mm2, respectivamente; p<0,05 vs LC e p<0,0001 vs SemRA). Na distribuição por compartimentos, tanto em RA quanto em LC houve a predominância de células FOXp3+ no interstício, porém não houve diferença estatística entre os 2 grupos. Na análise de células FOXp3+ por compartimentos do grupo LC segundo a Classificação de Banff-09, não houve diferença entres os subgrupos. A relação FOXp3/CD3 foi significativamente maior no grupo LC que no RA (17±5 vs 5±1; p<0,05). Na análise do grupo LC, a relação FOXp3/CD3 foi significativamente maior em FIAT que em RCA (25±8 vs 8±2; p<0,05). A análise da expressão de IDO não revelou diferença na comparação dos grupos SemRA, RA e LC. Não houve diferença também na expressão de IDO, tanto entre os grupos Banff I e Banff II, quanto entre os grupos FIAT e RCA. A relação IDO/CD3, foi significativamente maior no grupo LC do que no grupo RA (18±6 vs 3±1; p<0,05). Apesar da presença de células FOXp3+ ter sido maior nos casos com diagnóstico de rejeição aguda como descrito na literatura, não houve correlação da sua expressão com uma maior função do enxerto na análise de 12 meses após a biópsia, nem com a sobrevida do enxerto em 12 meses. Nos casos com diagnóstico de lesões crônicas, a maior relação FOXp3/CD3 se correlacionou negativamente com a função do enxerto 12 meses após a biópsia. A expressão de IDO também não se correlacionou com uma melhor função, nem com a sobrevida do enxerto na análise em 12 meses após a biópsia. A análise dos resultados apresentados sugere o envolvimento dos marcadores estudados na resposta inflamatória ocasionada pelo aloreconhecimento, uma vez que estão presentes em cenários imunológicos distintos, aparentemente, mediando o dano tecidual no microambiente do aloenxerto. No entanto, não há dados o suficiente para apontar para um papel das células FOXp3+ e da IDO no desenvolvimento de tolerância ao aloenxerto no presente estudo. Concluindo, ainda não está claro o quanto a presença de Tregs e IDO limitam os processos de rejeição/cronificação ou participam desses processos, sendo sua presença ainda controversa / Currently, kidney transplantation is choice therapy for patients with chronic kidney disease in stage 5, due to their good results in morbidity and improved quality of life compared with dialysis treatment. However, despite these positive results, renal grafts survival in the long term has not changed. The major cause of failures in long-term in kidney transplant are chronic graft changes, characterized by chronic rejection and components related to the nephrotoxic effects of calcineurin inhibitors. The development of strategies to modulate the immune system interfering with the balance between regulatory and effector mechanisms, capable of inducing organ acceptance (tolerance), would be the excellent alternative in this scenario. However, the immunological mechanisms involved in the immunoregulation are poorly understood, hindering to identify cases tolerant as well as developing strategies for their modulation. Within the possible molecules involved in immunomodulation, stand out the Forkhead Box P3 (FOXp3), a marker of regulatory cells, and the enzyme indoleamine 2,3 dioxygenase (IDO), recently recognized by their role in maternal-fetal tolerance. In this present study, we used immunohistochemical techniques to identify T lymphocytes (CD3+), FOXp3 and IDO in renal allograft biopsies and to correlate its expression with graft function 12 months after the biopsy procedure. The relationship between regulatory and effector cells was analysed by FOXp3/CD3 and IDO/CD3 ratios. Due to limited recognition and diagnosis of tolerance cases, only was possible to analyze the expression of these markers in one single case of tolerant patient. On the other hand, the study of the expression of these markers in other clinical situations, should contribute to a better understanding of the mechanisms involved. In this context, the present study analyzed 63 renal allograft biopsies in different clinical situations: no graft rejection (NR, n = 13), acute rejection (AR, n = 21) and chronic injury (CI, n = 29). In addition, one patient with clinical operational tolerance diagnosis (tolerant, n = 1) was analyzed. This patient developed graft dysfunction, restarted dialysis discontinuation of immunosuppressive treatment. After 2 years on dialysis therapy, recovered graft function and then was submitted to renal allograft biopsy. The biopsies included in this study were subdivided according to the Banff-09 classification. The acute rejection mediated by T lymphocytes was classified in Banff I (n = 15) and Banff II (n = 6). Cases that showed chronic injury were also subdivided according to the Banff-09 classification in Interstitial Fibrosis/Tubular Atrophy (IFTA, n = 15) and Chronic Rejection (CR, n = 14). Results: Analyzed separately, the tolerant case showed an expressive number of CD3+ cells (814 cells/mm2) and FOXp3+ cells (100.9 cells/mm2). Also, expressive FOXp3/CD3+ ratio (12,4x102) and low IDO expression (0.41% area).In AR group the number of CD3+ cells was significantly higher compared with CI and NR groups (973 ± 127 cells/mm2; 242 ± 43 cells/mm2 and 0.7 ± 0.4, cells/mm2, respectively; p<0.001 vs CI and p <0.0001 vs NR). In AR and CI groups CD3+ cells were detected in all compartments studied: interstitium, tubules, vessels and glomeruli. Comparing the groups, there was a predominance of CD3+ cells in the interstitium (p<0.0001) of AR group. No difference was observed between Banff I and Banff II subgroups analysis of CD3+ in the compartments. On the other hand, in the CR subgroup analysis was detected in significantly higher of CD3+ cells in the interstitium compared with IFTA (322 ± 66 cells/mm2 vs. 145 ± 32 cells/mm2, p<0.05) and in tubules (30,7±10 cells/mm2 vs. 6±2 cells/mm2, respectively; p<0.05). The number of FOXp3+ cells was significantly higher in the AR group (43±10 cells/mm2) compared with CI and NR (20±4 cells/mm2 and 0.1±0.1 cells/mm2, respectively; p<0,05 vs CI and p<0,0001 vs NR). The distribution of compartments, both AR and in CI predominated FOXp3+ cells in the interstitium, but there was no statistical difference between the 2 groups. In the FOXp3+ cells analysis, CI do not showed difference between subgroups in the compartments. The relationship FOXp3/CD3 was significantly higher in AR group compared in the CI group (17 ± 5 vs. 5 ± 1; p<0.05). In the CI group analysis, FOXp3/CD3 ratio was significantly higher in IFTA compared with CR (25±8 vs 8±2; p<0.05). IDO expression analysis shows no difference when compared NR, AR and CI groups. No difference in IDO expression analysis in Banff I compared with Banff II, and IFTA compared with CR was observed. The relationship of IDO/CD3, was significantly higher in the CI group when compared with AR group (18±6 vs 3±1, p<0.05). Despite the presence of FOXp3+ cells was higher in cases with a diagnosis of acute rejection as described in the literature, there was no correlation of its expression with improved graft function in the 12 months analysis after the biopsy procedure, as well as with graft survival in 12 months. In cases with a diagnosis of chronic injuries, FOXp3/CD3 ratio was negatively correlated with graft function 12 months after the biopsy procedure. The analysis of these results led us to speculate about the involvement of these markers in the inflammatory response, mediating the tissue damage in the microenvironment of the graft, once it is immunological distinct scenarios, however, in this study, there is no enough data to point to a role in development of tolerance. In conclusion, it is unclear how the presence of Tregs and IDO limit the allograft rejection/chronicity or participate in this process, and their presence is still controversial

La symbiose mycorhizienne à arbuscule (MA) est une association mutualiste s’établissant entre les racines des plantes et des champignons du sol appartenant à l’embranchement des Gloméromycètes. Dans cette association, le champignon agit comme un fertilisant naturel, fournissant à la plante divers minéraux (phosphore, mais aussi azote et soufre …) en échange de sources de carbone indispensables à son développement. Une caractéristique originale de ces champignons est leur très large spectre d’hôte : de l’ordre de 80% des espèces végétales ont l’aptitude à former cette symbiose, et certains espèces de champignons MA ne semblent pas avoir de limitation de spectre d’hôte. Les champignons MA possèderaient-ils des « clés universelles » de compatibilité cellulaire avec leur hôte, ou de contournement de l’immunité végétale ? Pour aborder cette problématique, nous avons entrepris l’étude du sécrétome du champignon MA Rhizophagus irregularis dont plusieurs données génomiques étaient disponibles. Les microorganismes eucaryotes sécrètent en effet dans leur environnement des protéines agissant sur leurs structures exogènes (paroi cellulaire), leur environnement, et pouvant agir sur l’immunité des cellules hôtes. Ces protéines sécrétées (SPs) sont dans ce dernier cas appelées « effecteurs ». Sur la base de deux assemblages différents, un catalogue de 872 SPs de R. irregularis (RiSPs) a été défini pour lesquelles les profils d’expression dans trois plantes hôtes ont été comparés. Nous avons également comparé ces SPs à celles que nous avons définies sur une autre espèce de champignon MA, Gigaspora rosea. Après enrichissement du catalogue de RiSPs avec des séquences de petite taille identifiées sur un assemblage transcriptomique propre, puis sélection des candidats dont les cadres de lecture sont robustes et présentant un niveau d’expression élevé (FC>10) dans les 3 hôtes testés, un jeu de 33 RiSPs d’intérêt a été défini, dont 18 ont été sélectionnées pour effectuer des analyses fonctionnelles. En absence de protocole de transformation de ces champignons, l’analyse fonctionnelle a porté sur la cytolocalisation de protéines de fusion RiSP:citrine dans les cellules végétales par surexpression dans des feuilles de tabac et des racines de luzerne tronquée. Différents compartiments cellulaires sont ciblés par ces RiSPs, très souvent le compartiment vacuolaire. Des approches par surexpression in planta de plusieurs candidats RiSP ont permis d’identifier une activité stimulatrice de 3 RiSPs sur l’établissement de la symbiose. Parallèlement, des essais de stimulation de la symbiose MA par apport exogène de différents SPs sur plantules en cours de mycorhization en chambre ont été initiés. Ils devront être poursuivis sur les 3 candidats issus du crible de surexpression. En perspective, l’évaluation de la spécificité d’action de ces SPs sur la symbiose MA comparativement à d’autres interactions plante-champignon ouvrira la voie à des essais d’application au champ. / Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis is a mutualistic association established between plant roots and soil fungi belonging to the phylum Glomeromycota. In this association, the fungus acts as a natural fertilizer, supplying the plant with various minerals (phosphorus, but also nitrogen and sulfur) in exchange to carbon sources essential for its development. An original feature of these fungi is their very broad host spectrum: c.a. 80% of plant species have the ability to form this symbiosis, and some species of AM fungi do not seem to have a restrictive host spectrum. Would MA fungi possess "universal keys" for cell compatibility with their host, or to by-pass plant immunity? To address this problem, we studied the secretome of the AM fungus Rhizophagus irregularis from which several genomic data were available. Eukaryotic microorganisms indeed secrete in their environment proteins acting on their exogenous structures (cell wall), on their environment (nutrient recruitment), and even on host plant cell immunity. These last secreted proteins (SPs) are defined as effectors. Based on two different assemblies, a repertoire of 872 SPs of R. irregularis was defined for which transcriptional expression profiles obtained in three hosts were compared, as well with SPs from another species of AM fungus, Gigaspora rosea. After adding sequences of small size identified from an in-house transcriptomic assembly, screening unambiguous open reading frame, and selecting strongly expressed candidates (FC> 10) in the 3 plant hosts analyzed, a set of 33 RiSPs of interest was defined, of which 18 were selected for functional analysis. As genetic transformation protocol is unavailable for AM fungi, RiSP:citrine fusion proteins were overexpressed in tobacco leaves and barrel medic roots for plant cell localization. Different cell compartments were targeted by these RiSPs, and often localised in the vacuolar compartment. In planta overexpression of several candidates allowed identifying 3 RiSPs that stimulate the establishment of the symbiosis. In the same time, attempts to enhance MA symbiosis by addition of exogenous RiSPs on seedlings during mycorrhizal establishment were initiated. Such assays should be pursued on the 3 active candidates revealed by overexpression assays. Evaluating the specificity of action of these RiSPs on AM symbiosis compared to other plant-fungus interactions will open the way to field trials.

Plant pathogens have the ability to quickly overcome host resistance and shift to novel hosts. The (re)emergence of plant pathogens is a major concern in agriculture and in conservation of natural landscapes. The rapid adaptation to hosts and new environments depends on the genetic variability in pathogen populations. Despite of the importance of sugarcane for Brazilian agribusiness and the persistence of the smut pathogen Sporisorium scitamineum in most cropping areas, genetic variation studies are still missing for Brazilian isolates. In the chapters 1 and 2, molecular variability studies were performed for Brazilian and Argentine isolates of S. scitamineum, using molecular markers (AFLP, telRFLP) and sequencing (ITS and a candidate effector gene) strategies. No variation was found in ITS sequences. On the contrary, telRFLP marker generates almost a unique fingerprint for each strain. Two genetically distinct groups were formed by the joint analysis of the AFLP and telRFLP markers. The two groups were the same formed by haplotypes of a candidate effector gene. The presence of polymorphisms that causes non-synonymous mutations in a candidate effector gene potentially involved in the specific interaction with sugarcane may cause distinct performances on host genotypes. S. scitamineum is part of the highly diverse clade of Ustilaginomycetes fungi that includes several smut disease agents. Despite being phylogenetically close and present similar lifestyles, species of smut fungi have distinct and narrow host ranges. Hence, another objective in this thesis was to identify the genetic basis of host specialization in smut fungi using comparative genomics analyses. In chapter 3, the mating-type loci were described in S. scitamineum genome and compared among smut fungi. Transposable elements are the likely mechanism causing chromosomal rearrangements between mating-type loci. The presence of trans-specific polymorphisms at the genes encoding pheromone/receptor proteins suggests a hybridization potential among smut species. In the chapter 4, a broad comparative genomics analysis was performed among nine species of smut fungi infecting distinct hosts. The genetic basis of host specialization in smut fungi is complex and seems to involve a range of evolutionary processes, including gene gain/loss and episodic selection events. Species-specific effectors and positively selected genes will be good candidates for further characterization in regards to their role in host adaptation. / Fitopatógenos apresentam a habilidade de rapidamente suplantar os mecanismos de defesas da planta e adaptar-se a um novo hospedeiro. A (re)emergência de patógenos é uma das maiores preocupações na agricultura e na conservação de populações naturais. A rápida adaptação ao hospedeiro e a novos ambientes depende da variabilidade genética nas populações de patógenos. Apesar da importância da cana-de-açúcar para o agronegócio brasileiro e da persistência do patógeno Sporisorium scitamineum, o agente causal do carvão da cana-de-açúcar, na maioria das áreas canavieiras, estudos de variabilidade genética ainda não foram realizados para isolados brasileiros. Nos capítulos 1 e 2, estudos de variabilidade molecular foram realizados para isolados brasileiros e argentinos de S. scitamineum, usando marcadores moleculares (AFLP e telRFLP) e dados de sequenciamento (ITS e um gene candidato a efetor). Nenhum polimorfismo foi encontrado usando sequências ITS. Contrariamente, o marcador telRFLP gerou quase um fingerprint para cada linhagem. Dois grupos geneticamente distintos foram formados pela análise conjunta dos marcadores telRFLP e AFLP. Os dois grupos também foram formados pelos haplótipos obtidos pelo sequenciamento de um candidato a efetor. A presença de polimorfismos causando mutações não-sinônimas em um candidato a efetor pode acarretar em performances distintas em diferentes genótipos de cana-de-açúcar. S. scitamineum pertence à classe Ustilaginomycetes, a qual também abrange vários outros agentes causais de doenças do carvão. Apesar de filogeneticamente próximos e com estilo de vida similar, espécies de carvão apresentam uma faixa distinta e estreita de hospedeiros. Portanto, outro objetivo desta tese foi identificar a base genética da especialização ao hospedeiro por fungos causadores de carvão usando análises de genômica comparativa. No capítulo 3, os loci envolvidos na determinação do tipo de reação sexual (mating-type) foram caracterizados no genoma de S. scitamineum e comparados com sequências de outras espécies de carvão. Tranposons foram identificados como provável mecanismo de rearranjo cromossômico entre os loci de mating-type. Polimorfismos trans-específicos nos genes codificadores de feromônios e receptores sugerem o potencial de hibridização entre espécies de carvão. No capítulo 4, análises de genômica comparativa abrangendo nove espécies de carvão infectando hospedeiros distintos foram realizadas. A base genética da especialização ao hospedeiro em fungos causadores de carvão é complexa e parece envolver processos evolutivos de ganho/perda de genes e seleção positiva. Efetores espécie-específicos e sob seleção positiva são destacados como bons candidatos para serem caracterizados quanto ao papel que estabelecem na adaptação ao hospedeiro.

La maladie de la rouille foliaire du peuplier causée par des champignons du genre Melampsora (Pucciniales, Basidiomycètes) affecte largement les peupleraies en France. Ces champignons possèdent des cycles de vie complexes et infectent deux hôtes différents. La sécrétion de molécules appelées effecteurs est nécessaire lors du processus d'infection par le champignon afin de manipuler les processus de l’hôte et de contourner son immunité. La compréhension de leur rôle est centrale en phytopathologie moléculaire. Au cours de cette thèse, l’analyse du transcriptome de Melampsora larici-populina (Mlp) au cours de son cycle sexué lors de l'infection des deux hôtes, le peuplier et le mélèze, révèle la présence d'une majorité de gènes exprimés communément chez les deux hôtes et d'une fraction exprimée spécifiquement chez chaque hôte, notamment des gènes codant des effecteurs candidats. Des cribles fonctionnels réalisés sur un répertoire d’effecteurs candidats de Mlp ont révélé deux candidats d’intérêt. L’effecteur MLP124017 interagit avec des protéines de la famille TOPLESS-RELATED PROTEINS et présente une structure similaire à des protéines NUCLEAR TRANSPORT FACTOR 2 LIKE. L'effecteur MLPCTP1 est localisé dans les chloroplastes en système hétérologue tabac et chez le peuplier. Les fonctions de ces effecteurs restent à élucider mais ces travaux ouvrent de nouvelles perspectives quant à la diversité et au rôle des effecteurs chez les Pucciniales. L'analyse préliminaire du génome de M. allii-populina montre des répertoires comparables en gènes et en effecteurs candidats par rapport à Mlp ainsi qu'une expansion de la taille du génome due à l’invasion par des éléments transposables / The poplar rust disease is caused by fungi belonging to the Melampsora genus (Pucciniales, Basiodiomycota) that cause important damages in poplar plantations in France. These fungi achieve their complex life cycles on two different host plants. The secretion of molecules called effectors that alter cell processes and impair immunity are required to set a successful infection. A central theme of molecular phytopathology is to understand how these molecules function in the host cell. In this PhD thesis, the transcriptome analysis of M. larici-populina (Mlp) during its sexual cycle while infecting its two host plants, poplar and larch, revealed a majority of genes commonly expressed on both hosts and a fraction specifically expressed on each host, including genes encoding candidate effectors. Effectoromic screens developed on a panel of Mlp candidate effectors revealed two candidates of interest. The candidate effector MLP124017 interacts with proteins of the TOPLESS-RELATED PROTEINS family and presents a structure similar to NUCLEAR TRANSPORT FACTOR 2 LIKE proteins. The MLPCTP1 effector is translocated inside chloroplasts of the heterologous plant tobacco and poplar. The functions of these two effectors remain to be determined but the functional characterization initiated in this thesis opens new perspectives in term of diversity and roles of effectors in Pucciniales. The preliminary analysis of the M. allii-populina genome shows similar repertoires of genes and candidate effector genes compared with Mlp as well as an increased genome size due to transposable elements invasion

Les nématodes à galles (RKN), Meloidogyne spp. sont des petits vers parasites qui infectent les racines des plantes où ils induisent la formation de sites nourriciers. Les RKN sont des endoparasites à large gamme d'hôtes, englobant les principales espèces de plantes cultivées. Meloidogyne javanica, M. graminicola et M. incognita sont les principales espèces parasitant le riz (Oryza sativa). Le succès infectieux des RKN repose sur la production de protéines effecteurs de virulence, secrétées dans leurs glandes oesophagiennes et libérées dans les cellules de la plante hôte par leur stylet. La caractéristique principale des RKN est leur capacité à déréguler des cellules du parenchyme vasculaire pour induire la formation de cellules géantes multinucléées, à haute activité métabolique. Les processus moléculaires sous-jacents restent encore mal connus, alors que l’identification d’effecteurs de virulence et de leurs cibles végétales pourrait fournir de nouvelles perspectives pour le contrôle des RKN. Ainsi, les objectifs de cette étude étaient (1) d’évaluer le rôle de protéines de Meloidogyne sécrétées (MSP) au cours des interactions riz - RKN et (2) d'identifier des cibles des MSP parmi les principales protéines Hub d’Arabidopsis thaliana impliquées dans l'immunité des plantes, afin d'évaluer la fonction putative des MSP dans les cellules hôtes. Pour la première partie de notre étude, nous avons sélectionné trois MSP exprimées dans les glandes oesophagiennes et possiblement sécrétées. L’analyse de l’expression des gènes par RT-qPCR a montré que MSP2 est fortement exprimé dans les premiers stades du cycle du nématode, tandis que MSP18 et MSP19 sont activés au cours du parasitisme dans les racines du riz. Les essais de localisation subcellulaire dans les cellules d'oignon ont identifié le noyau (pour MSP2) et le cytoplasme (pour MSP7 et MSP18) comme compartiments cellulaires ciblés par les protéines du nématode. Des plants de riz (O. sativa Nipponbare) transgéniques ont été produits pour évaluer le rôle des MSP au cours des interactions riz-RKN. Des lignées de riz surexprimant MSP18 ont permis un taux de reproduction plus élevé de M. javanica et M. graminicola. Au contraire, des retards de développement et de reproduction de M. javanica ont été observés sur des lignées de riz exprimant des micro-RNAs capables de supprimer l’expression des gènes MSP2 ou MSP19. Ces données ont montré que MSP2, MSP18 et MSP19 peuvent être des gènes importants pour le parasitisme ou le développement du nématode. Les tests d'expression transitoire dans le tabac (Nicotiana benthamiana) ont montré que MSP18 peut interférer avec la mort cellulaire programmée déclenchée par INF1, ce qui suggère que MSP18 pourrait supprimer les voies de défense des plantes pour faciliter l’infection. Dans une deuxième partie de ce travail, des analyses systématiques en double-hybride chez la levure ont été menées pour vérifier les interactions protéine-protéine entre 6 MSP et 18 protéines Hub d’A. thaliana. Chez la levure, la protéine du nématode MSP400 interagit avec trois protéines Hub, l’Anaphase-Promoting-complex 8 (At-APC8) et les facteurs de transcription At-TCP14 et At-TCP15. L'interaction physique de MSP400 avec At-APC8, un régulateur clé du cycle cellulaire de la plante, a été confirmée in planta par complémentation bimoléculaire de fluorescence (BiFC). Ces résultats démontrent pour la première fois qu'un effecteur de nématode est capable d'interagir directement avec une protéine régulatrice du cycle cellulaire chez la plante, révélant un nouveau mécanisme utilisé par les RKN pour commander la machinerie du cycle de la cellule hôte et induire ainsi la formation du site d'alimentation. Les données obtenues dans cette étude élargissent considérablement notre connaissance des acteurs moléculaires qui contribuent à la pathogénicité des nématodes, mettant en évidence les différents mécanismes exploités par les RKN pour promouvoir la sensibilité des plantes. / Root-knot nematodes (RKN), Meloidogyne spp. are small parasitic worms that infect plant roots where they induce the formation of highly specialized nutrient feeding sites. RKN are endoparasites with a wide host range encompassing major plant crops, impairing effective specific control. Meloidogyne javanica, M. graminicola, and M. incognita are the principal RKN species responsible for rice (Oryza sativa) production losses. Successful plant infection is likely achieved by nematode effector proteins produced in their esophageal gland cells and released into the host plant cells through their stylet. In particular, one of the striking features of RKN is their ability to deregulate vascular parenchyma cells to induce the formation of multinucleated giant cells with a high metabolic activity in the roots. The molecular processes underlying plant-RKN interactions still remain poorly understood. Identification of nematode virulence effectors and their plant targets may provide new insights for developing control strategies towards RKN. Thus, the aims of this study were to (1) assess the role of Meloidogyne secreted proteins (MSP) in rice – RKN interactions and (2) identify MSP targets among the major Arabidopsis thaliana Hub proteins involved in plant immunity, to assess the putative MSP function into host cells. For the first part of our study, we selected three Meloidogyne-genus specific proteins expressed in esophageal glands and predicted to be secreted. Gene expression analysis by RT-qPCR showed that MSP2 is highly expressed in the early stages of the nematode cycle, while MSP18 and MSP19 are up-regulated during parasitism in rice roots. Subcellular localization assays in onion cells identified the nucleus (for MSP2) and cytoplasm (for MSP7 and MSP18) as the main cellular compartments targeted by nematode proteins. Transgenic rice (O. sativa Nipponbare) plants expressing the MSP cDNAs or artificial micro-RNAs (amiRNAs) able to silence MSP genes were used to assess the role of MSPs during rice-RKN interactions. Homozygous transgenic lines were inoculated with pre-parasitic juveniles (J2) and (i) the number and developmental stage of nematodes present in roots after 21 days, (ii) the number of egg masses laid after 28 days and, (iii) the number of next-generation hatched J2 after 45 days were assessed. Rice lines overexpressing MSP18 allowed a higher reproduction rate of M. javanica and M. graminicola. On the contrary, impaired M. javanica development and reproduction was observed in rice lines expressing amiRNAs against MSP2 or MSP19 genes. These data showed that MSP2, MSP18, and MSP19 genes might be important genes for nematode parasitism or development. Transient expression assays in tobacco (Nicotiana benthamiana) revealed that MSP18 interfered with the INF1-triggered programmed cell death, suggesting that MSP18 could suppress the plant defense pathways to facilitate nematode parasitism. In the second part of this work, systematic yeast-two-hybrid paired assays were conducted to check for protein-protein interactions between 6 MSP and 18 A. thaliana Hub proteins. In yeast, the nematode MSP400 protein interacts with three Hub proteins, the Anaphase-Promoting-Complex 8 (At-APC8) and the transcription factors At-TCP14 and At-TCP15. Physical interaction of MSP400 with At-APC8, a key plant cell cycle regulator, was confirmed in planta by bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) assays. These results demonstrated for the first time that a plant parasitic nematode effector is able to directly interact with a cell cycle regulatory protein, revealing a novel mechanism utilized by RKN to control the host cell cycle machinery and thereby induce feeding site formation. The data obtained in this study significantly broaden our knowledge of the molecular players contributing to nematode pathogenicity, highlighting the different mechanisms exploited by RKN to promote plant susceptibility.

O transplante renal é atualmente o tratamento de escolha para pacientes com doença renal crônica em estágio 5, devido aos seus melhores resultados na morbimortalidade e melhor qualidade de vida dos pacientes, quando comparado com o tratamento dialítico. No entanto, apesar desses resultados positivos, a sobrevida dos enxertos renais em longo prazo não se modificou. As principais causas de falências tardias do transplante renal são as alterações crônicas do enxerto, caracterizadas por componentes de rejeição crônica e efeitos nefrotóxicos relacionados aos inibidores da calcineurina. O desenvolvimento de estratégias visando modular o sistema imunológico, interferindo no balanço entre mecanismos efetores e reguladores, capazes de induzir a aceitação do órgão (tolerância) seria a melhor alternativa para este cenário. No entanto, os mecanismos imunológicos envolvidos no processo da imunorregulação são pouco compreendidos, o que dificulta a identificação de casos tolerantes e a definição de estratégias para a sua modulação. Dentre as possíveis moléculas envolvidas no processo de imunomodulação, destacam-se a Forkhead Box P3 (FOXp3), marcador de células reguladoras e a enzima indoleamina 2,3 dioxigenase (IDO), reconhecida recentemente como tendo função central na tolerância materno-fetal. No presente estudo, foram utilizadas técnicas de imunohistoquímica para identificar linfócitos T efetores (CD3+), FOXp3 e IDO em biópsias de aloenxerto renal e correlacionar sua expressão com a evolução clínica do enxerto 12 meses após a biópsia. A relação entre células reguladoras e efetoras foi avaliada pelas relações FOXp3/CD3 e IDO/CD3. Devido à limitação do reconhecimento e do diagnóstico de casos de tolerância, só foi possível analisar a expressão destes marcadores em 1 único caso de paciente tolerante. Por outro lado, o estudo do perfil da expressão destes marcadores em outras situações clínicas deve contribuir para a melhor compreensão dos mecanismos envolvidos. Neste contexto, no presente estudo foram analisadas 63 biópsias de enxerto renal em diferentes situações clínicas: enxerto Sem Rejeição (SemRA; n=13), Rejeição Aguda (RA; n=21) e lesões crônicas (LC; n=29) além de 1 caso de paciente com diagnóstico clínico de tolerância operacional (Tolerante; n=1). Este paciente evoluiu com disfunção do enxerto, reiniciou terapia dialítica com a descontinuação do tratamento imunossupressor e após 2 anos em programa de hemodiálise, recuperou a função do enxerto, sendo, então, submetido a biópsia do enxerto renal. As biópsias incluídas foram subdivididas de acordo com a Classificação de Banff-09. As rejeições agudas mediadas por linfócitos T foram classificadas em RA-Banff I (n=15) e RA-Banff II (n=6). Os casos com Lesões Crônicas também foram subdivididos de acordo com a Classificação de Banff-09 em Fibrose intersticial/Atrofia tubular (FIAT; n=15) e Rejeição Crônica Ativa (RCA; n=14). RESULTADOS: analisado isoladamente, o caso Tolerante apresentou um número expressivo de células CD3+ (814 cel/mm2) e FOXp3+ (100,9 cel/mm2), assim como elevada relação FOXp3/CD3 (12,4x102).No entanto, apresentou uma baixa expressão de IDO (0,41% área marcada).Nos casos do grupo RA o número de células CD3+. foi significativamente maior que em LC e SemRA (973±127 cel/mm2; 242±43 cel/mm2 e 0,7 ± 0,4 cel/mm2, respectivamente; p<0,001 vs LC e p<0,0001 vs SemRA). Células CD3+ foram detectadas em todos os compartimentos estudados: interstício, túbulos, vasos, e glomérulos no grupo RA e no grupo LC. Comparando os grupos, houve predomínio de células CD3+ no interstício (p<0,0001) do grupo RA. Na subanálise segundo a Classificação de Banff-09, não houve diferença entres os subgrupos de RA na análise de células CD3+ por compartimentos. Por outro lado, na análise do grupo LC, no subgrupo RCA foram detectadas significativamente mais células CD3+ que em FIAT no interstício (322±66 cel/mm2 vs 145±32 cel/mm2; p<0,05) e nos túbulos (30,7±10 cel/mm2 vs 6±2 cel/mm2; p<0,05). O número de células FOXp3+ foi significativamente maior nos casos do grupo RA (43±10 cel/mm2) comparado com LC e SemRA (20±4 cel/mm2 e 0,1±0,1 cel/mm2, respectivamente; p<0,05 vs LC e p<0,0001 vs SemRA). Na distribuição por compartimentos, tanto em RA quanto em LC houve a predominância de células FOXp3+ no interstício, porém não houve diferença estatística entre os 2 grupos. Na análise de células FOXp3+ por compartimentos do grupo LC segundo a Classificação de Banff-09, não houve diferença entres os subgrupos. A relação FOXp3/CD3 foi significativamente maior no grupo LC que no RA (17±5 vs 5±1; p<0,05). Na análise do grupo LC, a relação FOXp3/CD3 foi significativamente maior em FIAT que em RCA (25±8 vs 8±2; p<0,05). A análise da expressão de IDO não revelou diferença na comparação dos grupos SemRA, RA e LC. Não houve diferença também na expressão de IDO, tanto entre os grupos Banff I e Banff II, quanto entre os grupos FIAT e RCA. A relação IDO/CD3, foi significativamente maior no grupo LC do que no grupo RA (18±6 vs 3±1; p<0,05). Apesar da presença de células FOXp3+ ter sido maior nos casos com diagnóstico de rejeição aguda como descrito na literatura, não houve correlação da sua expressão com uma maior função do enxerto na análise de 12 meses após a biópsia, nem com a sobrevida do enxerto em 12 meses. Nos casos com diagnóstico de lesões crônicas, a maior relação FOXp3/CD3 se correlacionou negativamente com a função do enxerto 12 meses após a biópsia. A expressão de IDO também não se correlacionou com uma melhor função, nem com a sobrevida do enxerto na análise em 12 meses após a biópsia. A análise dos resultados apresentados sugere o envolvimento dos marcadores estudados na resposta inflamatória ocasionada pelo aloreconhecimento, uma vez que estão presentes em cenários imunológicos distintos, aparentemente, mediando o dano tecidual no microambiente do aloenxerto. No entanto, não há dados o suficiente para apontar para um papel das células FOXp3+ e da IDO no desenvolvimento de tolerância ao aloenxerto no presente estudo. Concluindo, ainda não está claro o quanto a presença de Tregs e IDO limitam os processos de rejeição/cronificação ou participam desses processos, sendo sua presença ainda controversa / Currently, kidney transplantation is choice therapy for patients with chronic kidney disease in stage 5, due to their good results in morbidity and improved quality of life compared with dialysis treatment. However, despite these positive results, renal grafts survival in the long term has not changed. The major cause of failures in long-term in kidney transplant are chronic graft changes, characterized by chronic rejection and components related to the nephrotoxic effects of calcineurin inhibitors. The development of strategies to modulate the immune system interfering with the balance between regulatory and effector mechanisms, capable of inducing organ acceptance (tolerance), would be the excellent alternative in this scenario. However, the immunological mechanisms involved in the immunoregulation are poorly understood, hindering to identify cases tolerant as well as developing strategies for their modulation. Within the possible molecules involved in immunomodulation, stand out the Forkhead Box P3 (FOXp3), a marker of regulatory cells, and the enzyme indoleamine 2,3 dioxygenase (IDO), recently recognized by their role in maternal-fetal tolerance. In this present study, we used immunohistochemical techniques to identify T lymphocytes (CD3+), FOXp3 and IDO in renal allograft biopsies and to correlate its expression with graft function 12 months after the biopsy procedure. The relationship between regulatory and effector cells was analysed by FOXp3/CD3 and IDO/CD3 ratios. Due to limited recognition and diagnosis of tolerance cases, only was possible to analyze the expression of these markers in one single case of tolerant patient. On the other hand, the study of the expression of these markers in other clinical situations, should contribute to a better understanding of the mechanisms involved. In this context, the present study analyzed 63 renal allograft biopsies in different clinical situations: no graft rejection (NR, n = 13), acute rejection (AR, n = 21) and chronic injury (CI, n = 29). In addition, one patient with clinical operational tolerance diagnosis (tolerant, n = 1) was analyzed. This patient developed graft dysfunction, restarted dialysis discontinuation of immunosuppressive treatment. After 2 years on dialysis therapy, recovered graft function and then was submitted to renal allograft biopsy. The biopsies included in this study were subdivided according to the Banff-09 classification. The acute rejection mediated by T lymphocytes was classified in Banff I (n = 15) and Banff II (n = 6). Cases that showed chronic injury were also subdivided according to the Banff-09 classification in Interstitial Fibrosis/Tubular Atrophy (IFTA, n = 15) and Chronic Rejection (CR, n = 14). Results: Analyzed separately, the tolerant case showed an expressive number of CD3+ cells (814 cells/mm2) and FOXp3+ cells (100.9 cells/mm2). Also, expressive FOXp3/CD3+ ratio (12,4x102) and low IDO expression (0.41% area).In AR group the number of CD3+ cells was significantly higher compared with CI and NR groups (973 ± 127 cells/mm2; 242 ± 43 cells/mm2 and 0.7 ± 0.4, cells/mm2, respectively; p<0.001 vs CI and p <0.0001 vs NR). In AR and CI groups CD3+ cells were detected in all compartments studied: interstitium, tubules, vessels and glomeruli. Comparing the groups, there was a predominance of CD3+ cells in the interstitium (p<0.0001) of AR group. No difference was observed between Banff I and Banff II subgroups analysis of CD3+ in the compartments. On the other hand, in the CR subgroup analysis was detected in significantly higher of CD3+ cells in the interstitium compared with IFTA (322 ± 66 cells/mm2 vs. 145 ± 32 cells/mm2, p<0.05) and in tubules (30,7±10 cells/mm2 vs. 6±2 cells/mm2, respectively; p<0.05). The number of FOXp3+ cells was significantly higher in the AR group (43±10 cells/mm2) compared with CI and NR (20±4 cells/mm2 and 0.1±0.1 cells/mm2, respectively; p<0,05 vs CI and p<0,0001 vs NR). The distribution of compartments, both AR and in CI predominated FOXp3+ cells in the interstitium, but there was no statistical difference between the 2 groups. In the FOXp3+ cells analysis, CI do not showed difference between subgroups in the compartments. The relationship FOXp3/CD3 was significantly higher in AR group compared in the CI group (17 ± 5 vs. 5 ± 1; p<0.05). In the CI group analysis, FOXp3/CD3 ratio was significantly higher in IFTA compared with CR (25±8 vs 8±2; p<0.05). IDO expression analysis shows no difference when compared NR, AR and CI groups. No difference in IDO expression analysis in Banff I compared with Banff II, and IFTA compared with CR was observed. The relationship of IDO/CD3, was significantly higher in the CI group when compared with AR group (18±6 vs 3±1, p<0.05). Despite the presence of FOXp3+ cells was higher in cases with a diagnosis of acute rejection as described in the literature, there was no correlation of its expression with improved graft function in the 12 months analysis after the biopsy procedure, as well as with graft survival in 12 months. In cases with a diagnosis of chronic injuries, FOXp3/CD3 ratio was negatively correlated with graft function 12 months after the biopsy procedure. The analysis of these results led us to speculate about the involvement of these markers in the inflammatory response, mediating the tissue damage in the microenvironment of the graft, once it is immunological distinct scenarios, however, in this study, there is no enough data to point to a role in development of tolerance. In conclusion, it is unclear how the presence of Tregs and IDO limit the allograft rejection/chronicity or participate in this process, and their presence is still controversial