When companies go public, the shares they sell tend to be underpriced, and thus exhibit a significant price jump on the first day of trading. As a result, IPO investors materialize significant first-day returns. In the long-run, however, relative to some benchmark, investors appear to lose out by continuing to hold the stocks of firms that have recently gone public. These IPO phenomena are subject of the following study. The thesis addresses two main objectives. First, it systematically surveys relevant empirical evidence and theories that have been proposed to explain IPO underpricing and long-run underperformance. In addition, both anomalies are studied form the viewpoints of two competing finance theories: efficient market hypothesis and behavioral finance. Theories of underpricing are grouped within two broad categories: asymmetric information based models and behavioral theories. While asymmetric information based models assume that one of the IPO transaction parties knows more than others, and that these information frictions give rise to underpricing, behavioral explanations, on the other hand, assume the presence of irrational investors who are the prime cause of underpricing. Theories of poor long-term performance are based on behavioral finance perspective only, where "investor sentiment" plays the main role. On the contrary, proponents of market efficiency strongly argue that the notion of systematic IPOs long-run underperformance is spurious. Secondly, the thesis empirically examines the presence of underpricing and the long-performance of IPOs in European NYSE Euronext markets. In general, the results undoubtedly show that IPOs in the sample are moderately underpriced on average. However, the assessment of IPOs long-run performance provides contentious findings and probably requires further research.

The key objective of this thesis is the outline of an alternative capital market modeling framework, the Volatility Asset Pricing Model, VAPM, inspired by the innovative dual approach of Mandelbrot and Hudson using the method based on synthesis of two seemingly antagonistic factors -- the volatility of market prices and their serial dependence determining the capital markets' dynamics. The pilot tests of this model in various periods using the market index as well as a portfolio of selected securities delivered generally satisfactory results. Firstly, the work delivers a brief recapitulation regarding the concepts of a consumer/investor choice under general conditions of hypothetical certainty. Secondly, this outline is then followed by a description of the "classical" methodologies in the risky environment of uncertainty, with assessment of their corresponding key models, i.e. the CAPM, SIM, MIM, APTM, etc., notwithstanding results of the related testing approaches. Thirdly, this assessment is based on evaluation of the underlying doctrine of Efficient Market Hypothesis in relation to the so called Random Walk Model. Fourthly, in this context the work also offers a brief exposure to a few selected tests of these contraversial concepts. Fifthly, the main points of conteporary approaches such as the Fractal Dimension and the Hurst Exponent in the dynamic framework of information entropy are subsequently described as the theoretical tools leading to development of the abovementioned model VAPM. The major contribution of this thesis is considered its attempt to apply the abovementioned concepts in practice, with the intention to possibly inspire a further analytical research.

The thesis deals with analysis of conceptual-methodological issues examined in the framework of post-keynesian economics. The author´s goal is to supply a solution to the problem of a definition of determinism/non-determinism for both deterministic and stochastic systems and also to the problem of the prevailing confusion which surrounds the notion of reversibility/irreversibility in both path-dependent and traditional-equilibrist systems. The author regards the determinism/non-determinism problem as essentially linked to the problem of a definition of fundamental uncertainty. The key issues are being identified in the "problem of a generator of endogenous shocks" and the "selection - creation problem". Finding solutions to these enables us to take a stand on the validity/invalidity of the classical dichotomy, in the eyes of the author. Davidson´s interpretation of ergodicity and O´Donnell´s critique of this are being presented and, drawing on the latter, along with Álvarez-Ehnts´ critique, the author rejects a simplifying pattern of Davidson´s, according to which neoclassical economics is based on the ergodic axiom. The author suggests a solution to the "selection - creation problem" consisting in distinguishing epistemological determinism from ontological determinism on the one hand, and epistemological determinism from epistemological non-determinism on the other hand. While selection is a characteristic feature of epistemological determinism and, in effect, the realm of "fundamental certainty", creation is referred to by the author as a characteristic feature of epistemological non-determinism, i. e., in effect, the realm of fundamental uncertainty. The author regards the "problem of a generator of endogenous shocks" a self-contradictory notion, based on the principle of causality and the law of non-contradiction, and suggests a solution to the problem consisting in rejection of the concept of shock endogeneity. At the same time, the author rejects Davidson´s "fundamental neoclassical article of faith" rhetoric, based on the first cause argument implied by the principle of causality. In opposition to Davidson, the author regards fundamental uncertainty being of a basically epistemological nature, consisting in our ignorance of the "ultimate law of change", the "Devine formula". Unlike O´Donnell, however, who puts stress on the element of epistemological uncertainty in his epistemological approach to uncertainty, the author also puts stress on the element of ontological certainty, consisting in our knowledge of the existence of the "Devine formula", apart from our epistemological uncertainty.

The mutual fund industry in Sweden has grown rapidly over the past years. Research has been made on the topic for over 50 years, however there are still uncertainties about the determinants of fund performance. The purpose of this study was to examine what determines the risk-adjusted performance of mutual equity funds available to Swedish investors.  A side-purpose was included to examine to what extent the Efficient Market Hypothesis holds in Sweden. A simple random sample was conducted where 500 equity funds were included. From Refinitiv/Thomson Reuters Eikon Datastream fund characteristics were downloaded. To find the abnormal return of mutual equity funds, a hybrid Fama-French Carhart factor model was used which includes both domestic Swedish factors and global factors. The model was used to calculate the yearly risk-adjusted performance for each fund using 12 months return. This was denominated Alpha which was used as the dependent variable in the regression models. Further, to determine the characteristics which affect risk-adjusted performance two multiple regression models with six independent variables and three control variables are constructed. Further, a one sample t-test was conducted to test the market efficiency for mutual funds available to Swedish investors. Eight statistical hypotheses were created and tested in which two found a significant result which were that alpha differs from zero and Total Expense Ratio determines the risk-adjusted performance.   To conclude, findings showed only the character Total Expense Ratio determines risk-adjusted performance of mutual equity funds available to Swedish investors. In conclusion the control variables year, geographical focus and currency affect the fund performance. The study is an interesting aspect for Swedish investors and fund managers since the study implies deeper knowledge about the mutual fund industry in Sweden and therefore should be concerned by the variable TER to earn abnormal returns. Further, the study contributes with a theoretical discussion in line with the results concerning Efficient Market Hypothesis, the Diversification Effect and Modern Portfolio Theory. Conclusions are drawn based on our result that the Efficient Market Hypothesis does hold in the Swedish fund market. Although only one character determines the risk-adjusted performance and average investor should choose funds that follow the market, based on the skill level of average investors.

Risk and tracking error budgeting was originally adopted by large institutional investors, including pension funds, plan sponsors, foundations, and endowments. More recently, risk and tracking error budgeting have gained popularity among financial advisors, multi-managers, fund of funds managers, high net worth individuals as well as retail investors. These techniques contribute to the portfolio optimisation process by limiting the extent to which a portfolio can deviate from its benchmark with regards to risk and tracking error. This is an ambitious paper that attempts to determine the optimal strategy to practically implement risk and tracking error budgeting as a portfolio optimisation technique in South Africa. This study attempts to bridge the gap between active, passive, and smart-beta investment management styles by introducing a low-cost portfolio construction technique, for core-satellite portfolio management, which contributes to the risk and tracking error budgeting process. Core-satellite portfolios are designed to expose the portfolio to a low-cost primary “core” consisting of passive and enhanced index funds, thus systematic risk “beta”, limiting the tracking error of the portfolio. The secondary “satellite” component is allocated to active and smart-beta managers to exploit expected excess return “alpha”. The primary aim of this research is to construct a rule-based product range of core-satellite portfolios called “replica portfolios”. The product range builds on the foundation of the Association for Savings & Investments South Africa (ASISA) framework. The study identifies three “target portfolios” from ASISA's framework, namely (1) High Risk: SA General Equity, (2) Medium Risk: SA Multi-Asset High Equity and (3) Low Risk: SA Multi-Asset Low Equity. Through this framework, active managers from each category are shortlisted using a Sharpe and Information Ratio filter. A secondary filtering technique, namely Returns Based Style Analysis (RBSA) is used to determine the style, R-squared and alpha-generating ability of active managers versus the passive asset classes and style indices they seek to replicate. Applying Euler's theorem for homogenous functions, we decompose the risk of the coresatellite portfolio into the risk contributed by each of its components. The primary mandate of the core-satellite portfolios in the product range is to allocate risk and tracking error efficiently across several investment management styles and asset classes in order to maximise returns while remaining within the specified risk parameters. iii The results highlighted that active managers, after fees, predominantly failed to outperform their benchmarks and passive building blocks, as identified through RBSA over the sample period (October 2009 – September 2019). However, only a small number of active managers generated superior risk-adjusted returns and were included in the core-satellite range of products. This study recommends to investors that they exploit the “hot-hands effect” by investing in specialised, benchmark agnostic active managers who consistently produce superior risk-adjusted returns. By blending active, passive and smart-beta strategies, investors are exposed to less total risk, less risk per holding and a lower tracking error. The three coresatellite portfolios developed in this study generated absolute and risk-adjusted returns that are more significant than their active and passive counterparts. Fee arbitrage was derived through the range of core-satellite products, resulting in tangible alpha over the sample period. The study encourages investors to use smart-beta strategies alongside active and passive funds since it improves Sharpe and Information ratios while enhancing the original portfolio's characteristics.

Bakgrund: Sedan finanskrisen 2008 har den globala ekonomin präglats av sjunkande räntor och stigande börser. Detta har lett till att intresset för den nordiska aktiemarknaden har nått rekordhöga nivåer. Flera av de strategier som tillämpas vid investeringar på aktiemarknaden baseras på att marknaden historiskt har tenderat att röra sig enligt vissa mönster under specifika kalendeperioder. Andra kända investeringsstrategier baseras istället på hur aktier värderas utifrån prismultiplar, som antas vittna om bolagets förväntade tillväxt och lönsamhet. Strategierna gör det intressant att undersöka dessa två typer av strategier gemensamt för att se ifall dem skulle kunna komplettera varandra och hjälpa en investerares att överavkasta sitt jämförelseindex. Syfte: Studiens syfte är att analysera ifall kalenderanomalier fortfarande förekommer (i) på aggregerad nivå på de nordiska marknaderna samt (ii) om eventuella marknadsanomalierna skiljer sig något mellan värde- och tillväxtaktier. Studien avser således besvara frågan ifall någon aktietyp tenderar att agera annorlunda under specifika kalenderperioder och hur detta kan bidra till mer välgrundade investeringsbeslut. Metod: För att kunna undersöka studiens syfte har avkastningen hos de nordiska aktieindexen undersökts under utvalda kalenderperioder. Utifrån regressioner har dessa perioder jämförts mot övriga perioder på året för att finna eventuell abnormal avkastning. För att undersöka differenser bland olika aktietyper har egna index konstruerats utifrån aktiens genomsnittliga P/BV-multipelunder de senaste tio åren. Resultat: Under den studerade tidsperioden mellan 2009 och 2020 går det att med statistisk signifikans att konstatera kalenderanomalier på de nordiska marknaderna. Resultaten varierar för varje effekt, land och aktietyp. En investerare hade alltså under den studerade tidsperioden kunnat generera abnormal avkastning genom att ta välkända anomalier i beaktning vid sina investeringsbeslut. Mellan de olika aktietyperna konstateras skillnader, dock inget som indikeraratt den ena gruppen är mer effektiv gentemot marknaden än den andra / Background: Since the financial crisis in 2008, the global economy has been characterized by falling interest rates and rising stock markets. This has led to interest in the Nordic stock market reaching record highs. Several of the strategies applied to investments in the stock market are based on the fact that the market has historically tended to move according to certain patterns during specific calendar periods, so-called calendar anomalies. Other known investment strategiesare instead based on how shares are valued on the basis of price multiples, which are assumed to testify to the company's expected growth and profitability. The strategies make it interesting to examine these two types of strategies together to see if they could complement each other and help an investor to outperform their benchmark. Purpose: The purpose of the study is to analyze whether calendar anomalies still occur (i) at the aggregate level in the Nordic markets and (ii) whether any market anomalies differ slightly between value and growth shares. The study thus intends to answer the question of whether anytype of share tends to act differently during specific calendar periods and how this can contribute to more informed investment decisions. Method: In order to be able to investigate the purpose of the study, the returns of the Nordic equity indices have been examined during selected calendar periods. Based on regressions, these periods have been compared with other periods of the year to find any abnormal returns. To examine differences among different share types, own indices have been constructed based on the share's average P / BV multiple over the past ten years. Result: During the studied period between 2009 and 2020, it is possible to establish calendar anomalies in the Nordic markets with statistical significance. The results vary for each effect, country and share type. An investor would thus have been able to generate abnormal returns during the period studied by taking well-known anomalies into account in his investment decisions. Differences are noted between the different share types, but there is no indication that one group is more efficient towards the market than the other.

The purpose of this thesis is to determine if impairment of goodwill is a value relevant factor to the investors in the companies listed on the Stockholm Large Cap stock exchange. This paper focuses on the annual reports from the 100 largest companies listed on the exchange.   The empirical model used is Capital Market Research and Market Based Accounting Research which is derived from Positive Accounting Theory. Capital Market Research and Market Based Accounting Research are based on critical assumptions made in the Efficient Market Hypothesis which is why it has its own section in the theoretical chapter. The theoretical chapter contains extensive information regarding the components of goodwill, its uses in accounting and how it is meant to be dealt with.  The analysis connects our empirical findings with our empirical model in order to draw conclusions from the output gathered in Minitab. Our analysis shows that only small proportions of the large quantities of goodwill on the Swedish stock exchange are impaired on a yearly basis. We also find that impairment of goodwill does not have a significant impact on market value, however goodwill itself does.  Investors either do not view impairment of goodwill as value relevant, or the impairment was known beforehand and was therefore reflected in the price of the stock. Goodwill is considered value relevant most likely due to investors viewing the preeminence of goodwill as a sign that the company will draw benefit from the underlying assets for years to come.    We conclude that impairment of goodwill is not a value relevant factor to the investors in the Swedish stock exchange, but that goodwill, and increasing goodwill is. The paper ends with suggestions for further research. / Syftet med denna avhandling är att fastställa om nedskrivning av goodwill är en värderelevant faktor för investerarna på den svenska Large Cap-börsen. Denna avhandling fokuserar på årsredovisningarna från de 100 största bolagen som är noterade på denna börs.  De empiriska modeller som används är kapitalmarknadsforskning och marknadsbaserad redovisningsforskning, vilka båda härstammar från positiv redovisningsteori. Kapitalmarknadsforskning och marknadsbaserad redovisningsforskning baseras på viktiga antagande gjorda i den effektiva marknadshypotesen, som har sitt egna avsnitt under teorikapitlet. Teorikapitlet innehåller omfattande information gällande komponenterna i goodwill, dess användning inom redovisning samt hanteringen av goodwill.  Analysen kopplar samman våra empiriska fynd med vår empiriska modell i syfte att dra slutsatser kring resultaten som sammanställts från programmet  Minitab. Vår analys visar att förhållandevis små mängder av de enorma goodwillposterna på den svenska Large cap-börsen skrivs ner på årlig basis. Vi finner också att nedskrivning av goodwill inte har någon väsentlig påverkan på bolagets marknadsvärde, vilket däremot goodwillposten i sig har. Antingen så ser inte investerarna nedskrivning av goodwill som värderelevant eller så var nedskrivningarna kända i förväg och således redan inräknade i aktiens pris. Att goodwill i sig är betraktat som värderelevant beror troligen på att investerarna ser innehavet av goodwill som ett tecken på att bolaget kommer dra nytta av dessa underliggande tillgångar under de kommande åren.    Vi drar slutsatsen att nedskrivning av goodwill inte är en värderelevant faktor för investerarna på den svenska börsen, men däremot att goodwill och en ökning av goodwillposten är värderelevant. Uppsatsen avslutas med förslag till ytterligare forskning

This thesis analyzes and evaluates the relationship between insider trading and the long-term stock performance of Initial Public Offerings (IPO) in Sweden. The study looks at firms that recently conducted an IPO and how the stock performance of the firm is impacted by insiders making transactions in their own stock. An IPO is known to generate high returns on its first day on the public stock market, but to underperform the market in the long term. The characteristics of an IPO are deviant from the rest of the stock market, and with less information available to the public compared to other firms, the IPO market is hard to navigate for investors. Transactions made by insiders in the share of their own company is usually seen as guidance in public companies. An insider purchase is usually followed by a positive stock return, and insiders selling shares have the opposite impact. The aim of this thesis is to investigate if the information provided by insider transactions can be used to create a potential trading strategy for IPOs. Through statistical analysis, a negative relationship is found between the insider trading and IPO long-term stock performance, indicating that insider buying shares are connected to lesser stock performance. This contradicts previous research regarding insider trading in seasoned firms and opens up for discussion. By implementing a theoretical framework, a deeper analysis of the proposed relationship is be made. This study concludes that the negative relationship between insider trading and long-term IPO stock performance is not directly caused by insider trading itself. Instead, it is a result of insiders making poor investment decisions due to outside pressure and behavioral factors.

Syfte: Företagens påverkan på samhället kopplat till ansvarsfulla investeringar är inget nytt. De senaste årens ökade kapitalflöden från en bred samling investerare mot hållbara investeringar leder fram till den här studiens syfte: Syftet med uppsatsen är att genom en uppdelning av nordiska finansiella bolag i portföljer utifrån ESG-betyg undersöka om ESG-betyget påverkar den riskjusterade avkastningen i de olika portföljerna. För att svara på denna högaktuella fråga genomför författarna i studien en tidsresa bakåt i tiden bland tongivande forskare, och, i flera fall nobelprisvinnares finansiella teorier för att finna svar. Önskan är att binda samman dessa med 2020-talets investerare och dess frågeställning om hållbara kapitalplaceringar.  Metod: Genom en kvantitativ forskningsansats avser denna att studie att kontrollera om det finns ett samband mellan finansiella bolags ESG-betyg och den riskjusterade avkastningen under perioden 2011 till 2020. Totalt analyseras 48 bolag med ESG-betyg och 84 bolag utan betyg. Resultat och slutsats: Studien visar inget tydligt samband mellan ESG-betyg och riskjusterad avkastning för nordiska finansiella bolag. Examensarbetets bidrag: Studien bidrar till forskningsområdena CSR, ESG-betyg och hållbara investeringar genom att visa på att dessa inte har något tydligt samband till varandra. Det praktiska bidraget visar att fondinvesterare inte bör betala en premie för hållbara fonder samt att det står aktieinvesteraren fritt att välja mellan finansiella bolag med eller utan ESG-betyg. Förslag till fortsatt forskning: Det föreslås att forska vidare på ämnet insiderhandel kopplat till hållbarhet, för att se om företagsledning agerar opportunistiskt på information rörande hållbarhet på ett liknade sätt som vid finansiell information. / Purpose: The link between the impact of corporations on society when it comes to responsible investing is no new thing. The latest years increased capital flows from a wide range of investors to sustainable investing leads to the purpose of this study; The purpose is to investigate how ESG score is impacting the risk adjusted return in a range of portfolios based on the ESG score of the underlying companies. To answer this current question the writers are making a time travel backwards to see what the theories of renounced, and sometimes Nobel Prize awarded, scientists can tell. Then connect these theories with the investors of 2020 and their questions on sustainable investing. Method: Through a quantitative research approach, this study intends to check whether there is a connection between financial companies' ESG score and the risk-adjusted return they provide during the period 2011 to 2020. A total of 48 companies with ESG score and 84 companies without score are analyzed. Result & Conclusions: The study shows no clear relationship between ESG score and risk-adjusted return for Nordic financial corporations. Contribution & Conclusions: The study contributes to the research areas CSR, ESG score and sustainable investments by showing that these have no clear connection to each other. The practical contribution shows that fund investors should not pay a premium for sustainable funds and that it shows that stock investors can freely choose between financial companies with or without ESG score. Suggestions for future research: It is suggested to study the field of insider trading linked to sustainability, to see if that information is valued in the same way as financial information.

Denna uppsats undersöker huruvida tillväxtföretag genererar en abnormal avkastning i samband med annonsering av ett förvärv. Studien genomför en händelsestudie där 30 noterade företag på Stockholmsbörsen har blivit utvalda genom olika urvalskriterier, till exempel köpeskilling och typ av företag. Vad som klassificerar ett tillväxtföretag kan skilja sig, men denna uppsats har med grund i teorin valt ut två olika finansiella nyckeltal, price-to-book och price-to-sales. Nyckeltalen för de enskilda företagen skall vara större eller minst lika med medianen på den tillväxtorienterade aktielistan Spotlight. Teorier som den effektiva marknadshypotesen, hybrishypotesen samt teorier om varför företag genomför förvärv tas upp och diskuteras. Uppsatsen diskuterar även informationsasymmetri och informationsläckage.Studiens resultat visar att urvalet vid annonseringsdagen genererar en genomsnittlig abnormal avkastning som är positiv, både när marknadsmodellen och constant mean return-modellen används. Urvalet innehåller uteliggare, därav kompletteras medelvärdet med medianen. Resultat för medianen påvisar en positiv abnormal avkastning. Resultatet pekar på att marknaden i genomsnitt är optimistiska till att tillväxtföretag genomför förvärv på kort sikt. / The study examines whether growth companies generate an abnormal return in relation to an announcement of an acquisition. The study conducts an event study where 30 listed companies on the Stockholm Stock Exchange have been selected through various selection criteria, such as purchase price and type of company. How one should classify a growth company differs, but based on the theory, this study has selected two financial key ratios, price-to-book and price-to-sales. The key ratios for the individual company must be greater than or at least equal to the median on the growth-oriented share list Spotlight.Theories such as the efficient market hypothesis, the hubris hypothesis, and theories about why companies make acquisitions are discussed. The study also discusses information asymmetry and leakage of information.The results of the study show that the sample at the day of announcement generates a positive average abnormal return both when the market model and when the constant mean return model are used. The study was affected by outliers, and which the mean was supplemented by the median, where the result showed a positive abnormal return. The results also indicate that the market is on average optimistic to growth companies making acquisitions in short term.