Membranas auto-sustentáveis compostas por filmes finos com múltiplas camadas SiO2/ ( 30 nm)/CdSe( 3,0nm)/SiO2 (18 nm) e SiO2( 30 nm)/PbSe( 3,0nm)/SiO2( 18 nm) foram produzidas por magnetron sputtering e submetidas à irradiação com feixe de elétrons em microscópios de transmissão eletrônica convencionais na faixa de energia de 80 a 300 keV em densidades de corrente de 0,3 a 8,0 A cm-2. Variações de contraste observadas em micrografias adquiridas com diferentes doses de elétrons sinalizam uma considerável redistribuição atômica nos filmes semicondutores, tal redistribuição é restrita às regiões iluminadas e possui maior dependência em relação à dose do que à densidade de corrente do feixe. Medidas de difração com área selecionada (Select Area Diffraction - SAD), observações em condição de alta resolução (High Resolution Transmission Microscopy - HRTEM) e medidas de dispersão em energia de Raio-X característico (Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy - EDS) indicam que ambos semicondutores mantém a estrutura cristalina e a quantidade de átomos de Cd, Se e Pb durante irradiação. As membranas SiO2/CdSe/SiO2 apresentam uma retração contínua e homogênea das interfaces CdSe/SiO2 ao longo da superfície irradiada, a nucleação e crescimento de regiões com apenas SiO2 dá origem a uma rede percolada de CdSe que é desmembradas em nanofios nodulares e nanopartículas isoladas. Os filmes de PbSe não apresentam um processo homogêneo e contínuo durante irradiação. Inicialmente, as interfaces PbSe/SiO2 apresentam perda das arestas de alto ângulo Neste caso, as modificações microestruturais são mais intensas após uma dose limite e em regiões específicas, próximas a buracos de SiO2 previamente existentes na amostra como depositada. Medidas SAD, micrografias em condição de campo escuro e análises de imagem HRTEM mostram que a irradiação no PbSe causa separação de fases, identificada por distribuições de nanopartículas de Pb interfaceadas com uma rede planar percolada de PbSe. A conservação de matéria nos sistemas permitiu determinar os fluxos atômicos durante irradiação, o que foi realizado pelo tratamento numérico das micrografias adquiridas em diferentes doses. A investigação do aquecimento da amostra e do comportamento dos sistemas quando irradiados em diferentes energias e densidades de corrente sugerem que os deslocamentos atômicos podem ser correlacionados com as probabilidades de interação entre elétrons e átomos alvo. Isto permitiu a comparação entre fluxos atômicos experimentais, obtidos pelo tratamento numérico das micrografias TEM, com fluxos atômicos deduzidos em função das seções de choque para deslocamentos atômicos diretos, induzidos por colisões elásticas entre elétrons e átomos alvo, e deslocamentos indiretos, causados por radiólise. Os fluxos teóricos consideram variações nas taxas de deslocamento dos átomos de Cd, Se e Pb ao longo da interface semicondutor/SiO2, tais variações são entendidas como consequência de mudanças na energia de coesão das interfaces, que foram calculadas em função da curvatura e energia de superfície através do modelo de gota líquida (Líquid Drop Model - LDM) Comparações entre os fluxos atômicos inferidos das micrografias com os fluxos teóricos, obtidos das seções de choque para espalhamento elástico e inelástico de elétrons, permitiram estimar as energias de deslocamento dos átomos na interfaces e elaborar possíveis mecanismos para as mudanças microestruturais durante a irradiação. Os valores calculados de energia de deslocamento são inferiores às energias necessárias para deslocar átomos na superfície ou no interior da rede cristalina, mas podem ser aproximados às energias de migração atômica em interfaces. Os resultados mostram que os mecanismos de deslocamento atômico nos filmes finos de CdSe e PbSe não são os mesmos. As mudanças microestruturais observadas nos filmes finos de CdSe não podem ser explicadas apenas em termos de colisões balísticas dos elétrons, mas poderiam ocorrer por deslocamentos radiolíticos, principalmente se houverem estados de interface e meia banda que permitam excitações com energias transferidas menores que a largura de banda do CdSe. Já os resultados das irradiações no PbSe podem ser explicados como decorrentes de deslocamentos diretos, causados pela colisão balística dos elétrons nos átomos de Pb e Se pouco coesos nos planos PbSe{111}. Contudo, este estudo não permite excluir um possível processo de múltiplas ionizações como causa dos fluxos atômicos durante irradiação de ambas membranas. / Self-standing membranes compounded for multilayers SiO2/( 30 nm)/CdSe ( 3.0nm) /SiO2 (18 nm) and SiO2( 30 nm)/PbSe( 3.0nm)/SiO2( 18 nm) were irradiated in conventional Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEM) at energy range of 80 - 300 keV, current densities 0.3 - 8.0 A cm-2. The image contrasts of the micrographs acquired at different electron doses show an intense atomic redistribution in the semiconductor films. The effects of irradiation are restricted on the irradiated regions and show a dose dependence instead electric current dependence. Select Area Diffraction (SAD), Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) measurements and High Resolution Electron Transmission Microscopy (HRTEM) micrographs show that the both semiconductors mantained the crystal structure and quantity of Cd, Se and Pb atoms after irradiation. The SiO2/CdSe/SiO2 membranes have a homogeneously and continuous retraction of the CdSe/SiO2 interfaces along the irradiated regions. The SiO2 holes grow to produce a percolated planar network of CdSe. In larger doses this network is disrupted, producing nodular nanowires and isolated nanoparticles. Otherwise, the PbSe thin films did not show a homogeneous and continuous process. In the first minutes of irradiation, the SiO2 holes lost the edges of high angles, the retraction of the interfaces PbSe/SiO2 occurs only at a specific electron dose, after which there are growth and nucleation of new holes around the previous ones SAD measurements, dark field micrographs and HRTEM images attest phase separation during electron beam irradiation of the PbSe, the results show isolated Pb nanoparticles connected to a planar percolated network of PbSe. The matter conservation at the systems allowed the calculation of an atomic flux during the irradiation, what was made by the numerical treatment of the micrographs acquired at different electron doses. The investigation of the sample heating and the behavior of the systems when irradiated at different energies and current densities suggest that the atomic displacements can be correlated with the probabilities of electron-atom interactions. This allowed the comparison between the inferred atomic fluxes with atomic fluxes deduced by the cross sections for the ballistic displacement induced by elastic collision of the electrons and the atomic fluxes deduced by the inelastic cross sections, which show the probability of the indirect displacements induced by radiolysis. These fluxes consider changes in the displacement rates of the Cd, Se, and Pb atoms along the semiconductor/SiO2 due to changes in the cohesion energy at the interfaces, what was calculated in function of the curvature and surface energy using the Líquid Drop Model - LDM The comparison between the atomic fluxes inferred by the TEM micrographs with the theoretical fluxes obtained by the elastic and inelastic scaterring cross sections allowed extimations of the displacement energies of the Cd, Se e Pb atoms at the interfaces, what was used to argue some possibles mechanisms for the microstructural changes during the irradiation. The calculated displacement energies are lower than the bulk or surface displacement energies, but can be approximated with the migration energies for the atomic diffusion at the interfaces. The results suggest that the mechanisms of atomic displacement can not be the same for the thin films of CdSe and PbSe. The microstructural changes observed in the CdSe thin films can not be explained only in terms of ballistic displacements, but can be explained by indirect displacements induced by the radiolysis, especially if there are intermediate and middle band states that allow excitations with energies below the CdSe band-gap. In other way, the results of the PbSe can be explained by direct displacements caused by the ballistic collision of the electrons at the Pb and Se atoms placed in the unstable PbSe{111} planes. However, this study can not rule out the possibility of a multiple ionization process as the cause of the atomic fluxes in both membranes.

Electron beam welding is used for fabricating critical components for the aerospace and nuclear industries which demand high quality. The cost of materials and associated processes of fabrication is also very high. Therefore, manufacturing processes in these industries are highly controlled. However, it has been found that even minor changes in the electron beam gun itself can produce large variations in beam characteristics, leading to unpredictable welding performance. Hence, it is very important to ensure the beam quality prior to carrying out welds. This requires some kind of device and process to characterise the electron beam to indicate variations. A detailed review of different technologies used to develop devices to characterise electron beams has been carried out. At this time, it is uncommon for beam measurement to be carried out on production EBW equipment. Research carried out for this thesis is focused on development of a novel approach to characterise the electron beams using a slit-probe to maintain the quality of the welds. The challenge lies in deriving relevant features from the acquired probe signal which can effectively differentiate between the beams of different quality. Wavelet transformation, with its advantages over other methods for simultaneous time and frequency localization of signals, has found its application to feature extraction in many pattern based classifications. This technique has been used to analyse probe signals considering that different quality beams will possess unique signal profiles in the form of their distribution of energies with respect to frequency and time. To achieve the aim of the thesis, an experimental approach was used by carrying out melt runs on Ti-6Al-4V plates focusing on aerospace requirements, and varying beam properties and acquiring probe signals for all beam settings. Extracted features from the probe signals have been used in classification of the electron beams to ensure these will produce welds within the tolerance limits specified by aerospace standards for quality assurance. The features vector was compiled following statistical analysis to find the significant beam characteristics. By analysing the performance of classifier for different combination of parameters of the features vector, the optimum classification rate of 89.8% was achieved by using the parameters derived from wavelet coefficients for different decomposition levels. This work showed that the use of wavelet analysis and classification using features vectors enabled identification of beams that would produce welds out-of-tolerance. Keywords: Electron beam welding, probe devices, electron beam characterisation, quality assurance, wavelet transform, features vector, linear discriminant classifier, weld profiles, weld defects.

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Membranas auto-sustentáveis compostas por filmes finos com múltiplas camadas SiO2/ ( 30 nm)/CdSe( 3,0nm)/SiO2 (18 nm) e SiO2( 30 nm)/PbSe( 3,0nm)/SiO2( 18 nm) foram produzidas por magnetron sputtering e submetidas à irradiação com feixe de elétrons em microscópios de transmissão eletrônica convencionais na faixa de energia de 80 a 300 keV em densidades de corrente de 0,3 a 8,0 A cm-2. Variações de contraste observadas em micrografias adquiridas com diferentes doses de elétrons sinalizam uma considerável redistribuição atômica nos filmes semicondutores, tal redistribuição é restrita às regiões iluminadas e possui maior dependência em relação à dose do que à densidade de corrente do feixe. Medidas de difração com área selecionada (Select Area Diffraction - SAD), observações em condição de alta resolução (High Resolution Transmission Microscopy - HRTEM) e medidas de dispersão em energia de Raio-X característico (Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy - EDS) indicam que ambos semicondutores mantém a estrutura cristalina e a quantidade de átomos de Cd, Se e Pb durante irradiação. As membranas SiO2/CdSe/SiO2 apresentam uma retração contínua e homogênea das interfaces CdSe/SiO2 ao longo da superfície irradiada, a nucleação e crescimento de regiões com apenas SiO2 dá origem a uma rede percolada de CdSe que é desmembradas em nanofios nodulares e nanopartículas isoladas. Os filmes de PbSe não apresentam um processo homogêneo e contínuo durante irradiação. Inicialmente, as interfaces PbSe/SiO2 apresentam perda das arestas de alto ângulo Neste caso, as modificações microestruturais são mais intensas após uma dose limite e em regiões específicas, próximas a buracos de SiO2 previamente existentes na amostra como depositada. Medidas SAD, micrografias em condição de campo escuro e análises de imagem HRTEM mostram que a irradiação no PbSe causa separação de fases, identificada por distribuições de nanopartículas de Pb interfaceadas com uma rede planar percolada de PbSe. A conservação de matéria nos sistemas permitiu determinar os fluxos atômicos durante irradiação, o que foi realizado pelo tratamento numérico das micrografias adquiridas em diferentes doses. A investigação do aquecimento da amostra e do comportamento dos sistemas quando irradiados em diferentes energias e densidades de corrente sugerem que os deslocamentos atômicos podem ser correlacionados com as probabilidades de interação entre elétrons e átomos alvo. Isto permitiu a comparação entre fluxos atômicos experimentais, obtidos pelo tratamento numérico das micrografias TEM, com fluxos atômicos deduzidos em função das seções de choque para deslocamentos atômicos diretos, induzidos por colisões elásticas entre elétrons e átomos alvo, e deslocamentos indiretos, causados por radiólise. Os fluxos teóricos consideram variações nas taxas de deslocamento dos átomos de Cd, Se e Pb ao longo da interface semicondutor/SiO2, tais variações são entendidas como consequência de mudanças na energia de coesão das interfaces, que foram calculadas em função da curvatura e energia de superfície através do modelo de gota líquida (Líquid Drop Model - LDM) Comparações entre os fluxos atômicos inferidos das micrografias com os fluxos teóricos, obtidos das seções de choque para espalhamento elástico e inelástico de elétrons, permitiram estimar as energias de deslocamento dos átomos na interfaces e elaborar possíveis mecanismos para as mudanças microestruturais durante a irradiação. Os valores calculados de energia de deslocamento são inferiores às energias necessárias para deslocar átomos na superfície ou no interior da rede cristalina, mas podem ser aproximados às energias de migração atômica em interfaces. Os resultados mostram que os mecanismos de deslocamento atômico nos filmes finos de CdSe e PbSe não são os mesmos. As mudanças microestruturais observadas nos filmes finos de CdSe não podem ser explicadas apenas em termos de colisões balísticas dos elétrons, mas poderiam ocorrer por deslocamentos radiolíticos, principalmente se houverem estados de interface e meia banda que permitam excitações com energias transferidas menores que a largura de banda do CdSe. Já os resultados das irradiações no PbSe podem ser explicados como decorrentes de deslocamentos diretos, causados pela colisão balística dos elétrons nos átomos de Pb e Se pouco coesos nos planos PbSe{111}. Contudo, este estudo não permite excluir um possível processo de múltiplas ionizações como causa dos fluxos atômicos durante irradiação de ambas membranas. / Self-standing membranes compounded for multilayers SiO2/( 30 nm)/CdSe ( 3.0nm) /SiO2 (18 nm) and SiO2( 30 nm)/PbSe( 3.0nm)/SiO2( 18 nm) were irradiated in conventional Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEM) at energy range of 80 - 300 keV, current densities 0.3 - 8.0 A cm-2. The image contrasts of the micrographs acquired at different electron doses show an intense atomic redistribution in the semiconductor films. The effects of irradiation are restricted on the irradiated regions and show a dose dependence instead electric current dependence. Select Area Diffraction (SAD), Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) measurements and High Resolution Electron Transmission Microscopy (HRTEM) micrographs show that the both semiconductors mantained the crystal structure and quantity of Cd, Se and Pb atoms after irradiation. The SiO2/CdSe/SiO2 membranes have a homogeneously and continuous retraction of the CdSe/SiO2 interfaces along the irradiated regions. The SiO2 holes grow to produce a percolated planar network of CdSe. In larger doses this network is disrupted, producing nodular nanowires and isolated nanoparticles. Otherwise, the PbSe thin films did not show a homogeneous and continuous process. In the first minutes of irradiation, the SiO2 holes lost the edges of high angles, the retraction of the interfaces PbSe/SiO2 occurs only at a specific electron dose, after which there are growth and nucleation of new holes around the previous ones SAD measurements, dark field micrographs and HRTEM images attest phase separation during electron beam irradiation of the PbSe, the results show isolated Pb nanoparticles connected to a planar percolated network of PbSe. The matter conservation at the systems allowed the calculation of an atomic flux during the irradiation, what was made by the numerical treatment of the micrographs acquired at different electron doses. The investigation of the sample heating and the behavior of the systems when irradiated at different energies and current densities suggest that the atomic displacements can be correlated with the probabilities of electron-atom interactions. This allowed the comparison between the inferred atomic fluxes with atomic fluxes deduced by the cross sections for the ballistic displacement induced by elastic collision of the electrons and the atomic fluxes deduced by the inelastic cross sections, which show the probability of the indirect displacements induced by radiolysis. These fluxes consider changes in the displacement rates of the Cd, Se, and Pb atoms along the semiconductor/SiO2 due to changes in the cohesion energy at the interfaces, what was calculated in function of the curvature and surface energy using the Líquid Drop Model - LDM The comparison between the atomic fluxes inferred by the TEM micrographs with the theoretical fluxes obtained by the elastic and inelastic scaterring cross sections allowed extimations of the displacement energies of the Cd, Se e Pb atoms at the interfaces, what was used to argue some possibles mechanisms for the microstructural changes during the irradiation. The calculated displacement energies are lower than the bulk or surface displacement energies, but can be approximated with the migration energies for the atomic diffusion at the interfaces. The results suggest that the mechanisms of atomic displacement can not be the same for the thin films of CdSe and PbSe. The microstructural changes observed in the CdSe thin films can not be explained only in terms of ballistic displacements, but can be explained by indirect displacements induced by the radiolysis, especially if there are intermediate and middle band states that allow excitations with energies below the CdSe band-gap. In other way, the results of the PbSe can be explained by direct displacements caused by the ballistic collision of the electrons at the Pb and Se atoms placed in the unstable PbSe{111} planes. However, this study can not rule out the possibility of a multiple ionization process as the cause of the atomic fluxes in both membranes.

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Amostras de Teflón&#174 FEP e Mylar C foram submetidas a um bombardeio eletrônico por longos períodos a fim de se verificar a existência de uma possível corrente de condução na fase final de um carregamento por feixe eletrônico. Em vez disso, descobriu-se que a energia associada ao segundo ponto de cruzamento da curva de emissão eletrônica do material bombardeado varia lentamente com o tempo de exposição à irradiação. Por outro lado foram descobertos também fortes indícios de que o centróide de carga sofre um deslocamento enquanto a amostra está sendo irradiada. A componente da corrente através da amostra, associada a qualquer um desses efeitos se superpõe à corrente de condução (se existir) e acaba tornando inviável a sua observação, enquanto um ou ambos os efeitos persistirem. Na realidade não é só a energia do segundo ponto de cruzamento que varia; toda a curva de emissão característica do material, que é fundamental para se entender os processos e carga e descarga de amostras, sofre modificação com a irradiação prolongada. Além disto, dois novos métodos para se carregar uma amostra de polímero estão sendo propostos. Um deles permite carregar uma amostra positivamente, por etapas, a tensões mais elevadas que o método convencional. O outro possibilita carregar negativamente uma amostra, lançando mão do mecanismo de auto-regulação para interrupção do processo de carga, o que só havia sido feito até o momento para um carregamento positivo. Um novo método para se descarregar uma amostra usando o próprio feixe eletrônico também é apresentado. / Teflon&#174 FEP and Mylar C samples were submitted to an electron beam during long periods of time in order to examine the possible existence of conduction current in the final stages of the charging process. It was found that the energy associated with the second crossover point in the electronic emission curve of the irradiated material varied slightly with the time of irradiation. On the other hand, strong evidence emerged that the charge centroid is shifted while the sample is being irradiated. The component of the current through the sample which is associated with any of these effects is superimposed to the conduction current (if present), hampering the identification of a conduction current. In fact, it is not only the energy of the second crossover point that varies, for the whole emission curve is modified upon prolonged irradiation. This emission curve is fundamental for understanding the charging and discharging processes in the samples. In addition, two new methods for charging a sample are being proposed. The first allows one to charge the sample positively to surface potentials that are higher than those obtained in the conventional method. The other method permits the sample to be charged negatively using the auto-regulation mechanism for interrupting the charging process; this had previously been done only for charging samples positively. A new method for discharging a sample using the electron beam is also presented.

Construiu-se um acelerador de elétrons de baixa energia (Máximo de 20 KeV). Como fonte de elétrons utilizou-se um canhão de elétrons de cinescópio preto e branco, ou seja, com um único emissor termiônico. A energia do feixe eletrônico pode ser continuamente variada desde 0 a 20 KeV. A corrente eletrônica pode ser variada desde um valor mínimo de 10-12A a 3&#956A, permanecendo constante no tempo uma vez fixado o seu valor. Através da focalização ou desfocalização da imagem do feixe de elétrons, é possível variar-se a área irradiada desde um diâmetro mínimo de 1 milímetro a um máximo de 6 cm. A pressão final atingida nas câmaras de vácuo foi da ordem de 10-7Torr. Durante o funcionamento do canhão de elétrons, o cátodo do mesmo é danificado devido ao bombardeamento de íons em sua superfície. Para examinarmos o grau de danificação causado por este bombardeamento iônico, basta focalizarmos e examinarmos a imagem de feixe eletrônico sobre uma tela luminescente. Deve-se ressaltar que todo o acelerador de elétrons foi construído a partir de materiais e componentes totalmente nacionais. O acelerador de elétrons foi aplicado para estudar efeitos de irradiação de elétrons em Teflon usando-se o método do Split Faraday Cup. Foram medidas correntes transitórias de carga e descarga e determinaram-se o alcance médio dos elétrons e o valor da condutividade induzida pela radiação. / We have constructed a low energy electron accelerator (maximum energy 20 KeV). A black and white kinescope electron gun, with a single thermionic emitter was used as an electron source. The energy of electron beam can be changed continuously from 0 to 20 KeV. The intensity of the current can be changed from a minimum of 10-12A to a maximum of 3&#956A, and can be maintained constant in time after its value has been fixed. The irradiated area can be changed from a diameter of 1 millimeter to a maximum of 6 centimeter, by focalizing or defocalizing the image of electron beam. The final pressure reached in vacuum chambers was 10-7Torr. During operation the surface of cathode of electron gun is damaged by ion bombardment. The degree of damage can be checked if the cathode image is focalized and examined on a luminescent screen. The accelerator was used to study electron irradiation effects in Teflon, employing the method of the Split Faraday Cup. Transient charging and discharging currents were measured. The average range of electrons of the electrons and induced conductivity were determined.

Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit der Modifizierung von Beschichtungen auf Basis von diamantähnlichem Kohlenstoff (DLC). Die Modifizierung erfolgte mittels Elektronenstrahl (eBeam) und sollte der Oberflächenfunktionalisierung durch die Steuerung der Zelladhäsion dienen. Das Anwendungsfeld der modifizierten DLC-Schichten findet sich im biomedizinischen Bereich. Als Anwendungsbeispiel wurden Aktoren aus Formgedächtnislegierung (FGL) herangezogen. Diese sollen in Hüftendoprothesen genutzt werden. Ihre Aufgabe ist es, bei Implantatlockerung eine Wiederverankerung im Knochen, ohne äußeren Eingriff zu ermöglichen. Die Aktoren stellen an eine Beschichtung besondere Herausforderungen hinsichtlich Schichtstabilität und -flexibilität, Zelladhäsion sowie Barrierefunktion. Im Folgenden werden die untersuchten Schwerpunkte mit Bezug auf dieses Anwendungsbeispiel zusammenfassend dargestellt. Im ersten Abschnitt der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden vier Abscheidemethoden für DLC-Beschichtungen verglichen: die plasmaaktivierte chemische Gasphasenabscheidung (PA CVD), das Magnetronsputtern (PVD-Spu), und die Lichtbogenverdampfung ungefiltert und -gefiltert (PVD-Arc bzw. PVD-Arcfil). Aus diesen Abscheidemethoden sollte eine für das medizintechnische Einsatzgebiet geeignete Methode zur DLC-Abscheidung ausgewählt werden. Dafür wurden folgende Kriterien untersucht: Schichtmorphologie und stabilität, Biokompatibilität und die Möglichkeit zur Modifizierung mittels eBeam. Es zeigte sich, dass mittels Magnetronsputtern homogene DLC-Schichten abgeschieden werden können. Diese Beschichtungen zeigen im Vergleich zu den Beschichtungen der anderen Abscheideverfahren die beste Biokompatibilität. Die Modifizierung der Schichten mittels eBeam ermöglicht eine gezielte Verringerung der Zelladhäsion auf den Oberflächen, ohne zelltoxische Nebenwirkungen. Mit diesem Resultat wird die ausgewählte Beschichtung den Funktionsansprüchen des Anwendungsbeispiels gerecht. Als Anwendungsbeispiel wurden Aktoren einer intelligenten Hüftendoprothese herangezogen. Die Aktoren bestehen aus FGL-Material und sollen im Anwendungsfall eine intrakorporale Verformung durchführen. Die DLC-Beschichtung soll den Austritt von toxischen Nickelionen aus diesem Material verringern. Daher ist die Stabilität der DLC-Schichten auf den Aktoren für den zielgerechten Einsatz von grundlegender Bedeutung. Die Formflexibilität von DLC-Schichten ist aus der Literatur bekannt, womit sie eine geeignete Barrierebeschichtung für verformbare Bauteile darstellen, ohne dabei die Funktion des Substratmaterials zu beeinträchtigen. Grundlage für diese Formflexibilität stellen eine gute Schichthaftung und Langzeitstabilität dar. Auch an dieser Stelle zeigten die mittels Magnetronsputtern abgeschiedenen DLC-Schichten sehr gute Ergebnisse. Selbst die Beanspruchung durch wiederholte Desinfektion und Sterilisation führte bei dieser Beschichtung zu keiner Veränderung. Im Anwendungsbeispiel Hüftendoprothese kann es an der Implantat-Knochen-Schnittstelle zu Mikrobewegungen kommen. Durch die im Vergleich zu den anderen Beschichtungen sehr guten Ergebnisse der PVD-Spu-Schichten bei der tribologischen Charakterisierung, stellen diese Schichten eine für das Anwendungsbeispiel geeignete Beschichtung dar. Ein geringer Reibwert gewährleistet dabei eine ungestörte Gewebsintegration. Das Magnetronsputtern wurde basierend auf diesen Ergebnissen als geeignete Abscheidemethode für die DLC-Beschichtung von Implantatmaterialien ausgewählt. Im zweiten Abschnitt der Arbeit wurden die Modifizierung der Beschichtung, die Reaktion im biologischen Kontakt und die Barrierefunktion der Schichten bewertet. Durch die eBeam-Modifizierung der DLC-Beschichtung wird eine Hydrophilierung erzielt, die mit einer signifikanten Verringerung der Zellzahl auf der Oberfläche verbunden ist. Nach Beurteilung der Schichtmorphologie von unbehandelten und modifizierten DLC-Oberflächen konnte ausgeschlossen werden, dass die Hydrophilierung auf Veränderungen der Oberflächenmorphologie zurück zu führen ist. Vielmehr wurden chemisch-energetische Veränderungen als Ursache identifiziert, wobei die indirekte eBeam-Wirkung während der Modifizierung zum Tragen kommt. Die Intensität der Hydrophilierung ist dosisabhängig und zeigt eine Art Sättigungsverhalten ab 500 kGy. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass durch die Modifizierung der Anteil stickstoff- und sauerstoffhaltiger Funktionalitäten auf der DLC-Oberfläche zunimmt. Die Verringerung der Zellzahl, welche ebenfalls eine Art Sättigung bei 500 kGy zeigt, steht über die Proteinadhäsion mit diesen Veränderungen in direktem Zusammenhang. In Korrelation mit der Literatur scheint es durch die Zunahme der sauerstoffhaltigen Funktionalitäten zu einer veränderten Proteinadhäsion zu kommen. Dabei wird die Proteinkonformation verändert, was die anschließende Zelladhäsion verringert. Mittels eBeam können sehr feine Strukturen bis in den Mikrometerbereich modifiziert werden, was bedeutet, dass damit die Zelladhäsion in den aneinander angrenzenden Bereichen des Aktors gezielt eingestellt werden kann. Damit wird die DLC-Beschichtung mit dieser Modifizierung den Funktionsansprüchen des Aktorbauteiles gerecht. Die Analyse der Langzeitstabilität zeigte, dass die Modifizierung sowohl an Luft als auch in phosphatgepufferter Salzlösung (PBS) über einen Zeitraum von mindestens zwei Monaten stabil ist. Somit kann für das Anwendungsbeispiel die Modifizierung bereits langfristig vor dem Einsatz eines Implantates erfolgen. Bisher wurden derartige Modifizierungen hauptsächlich mittels Plasmabehandlung durchgeführt. Im Gegensatz zur vorliegenden Arbeit können damit jedoch keine zeitlich stabilen Effekte erzielt werden. Weitere Nachteile der Plasmamethoden ergeben sich durch Materialveränderungen und verhältnismäßig lange Prozesszeiten. Weiterhin wird laut Literatur bei der Plasmabehandlung von DLC-Oberflächen eine Steigerung der Zelladhäsion erzielt. In der vorliegenden Arbeit besteht das Ziel jedoch in der Verringerung der Zelladhäsion, wodurch sich auch unter diesem Aspekt die eBeam-Modifizierung gegenüber der Plasmamodifizierung als vorteilhaft erweist. Zusätzlich wurde neben der Langzeitstabilität für die eBeam-modifizierten DLC-Beschichtungen auch eine Stabilität gegenüber chemisch-mechanischer Reinigung mit anschließender Dampfsterilisation belegt. Da jedoch die FGL-Aktoren im Anwendungsbeispiel durch thermischen Energieeintrag aktiviert werden, könnte die herkömmliche Anwendung der Dampfsterilisation ein Problem darstellen. Auch dafür bietet die eBeam-Behandlung als alternative Sterilisationsmethode einen Lösungsansatz. Mit einer Sterilisationsdosis von lediglich 25 kGy ist die Anwendung des eBeams sowohl zur Sterilisation von unbehandelten als auch modifizierten DLC-Oberflächen möglich, ohne deren Eigenschaften oder die des beschichteten Substrates zu beeinflussen. Die eBeam-Modifizierung der DLC-Oberflächen bietet basierend auf den vorliegenden Ergebnissen eine Möglichkeit zur Steuerung der Zelladhäsion, da in den modifizierten Bereichen eine signifikante Verringerung der Zellzahl erzielt wird. Eine Verringerung der Zellzahl ist für die beweglichen Bereiche der FGL-Aktoren besonders wichtig, um deren Funktion zu gewährleisten (s. Abbildung 1). Für die modifizierten Schichten werden dabei keine Beeinträchtigung der Zellvitalität oder Veränderungen der Phasen des Zellzyklus festgestellt. Weiterhin ist belegt, dass von diesen Beschichtungen kein erhöhtes Entzündungspotential ausgeht, was den uneingeschränkten Einsatz der modifizierten DLC-Beschichtungen im biomedizinischen Bereich ermöglicht. Die unbehandelten DLC-Oberflächen hingegen sollen im Anwendungsbeispiel eine schnelle Implantatintegration gewährleisten. Auch diesem Anspruch wird die Beschichtung gerecht, da die osteogene Differenzierung humaner mesenchymaler Stammzellen auf diesen Oberflächen uneingeschränkt verläuft. Die Analyse des Calciumgehaltes als späten Differenzierungsmarker lässt sogar auf einen stimulierenden Effekt durch die Schichten schließen. Folglich kann für den Anwendungsfall der Hüftendoprothese eine beschleunigte Osseointegration erwartet werden. Die größte Herausforderung für die DLC-Beschichtungen bestand in der Verringerung des Nickelaustrittes aus dem FGL-Material. Die Ergebnisse der Extraktionsversuche belegen, dass aus unbeschichteten FGL Nickelionen austreten und die Stoffwechselaktivität von Osteoblasten beeinflussen. Auf DLC-beschichteten Proben hingegen kann kein messbarer Austritt von Nickelionen festgestellt werden. Im Direktkontakt mit humanen Osteoblasten zeigt sich auf den unbeschichteten FGL eine unnatürliche Zellmorphologie, was auf den Nickelaustritt zurückgeführt werden kann. Dahingegen erscheinen die Zellen auf den DLC-beschichteten Oberflächen in vitaler Morphologie. Diese Ergebnisse demonstrieren die Wirksamkeit der DLC-Beschichtung als Barriere gegenüber dem Austritt von Nickelionen. Zusammenfassend wird festgestellt, dass das Magnetronsputtern die Abscheidung von DLC-Schichten ermöglicht, die dem Anwendungsbeispiel Hüftendoprothese mit FGL-Aktor sowohl hinsichtlich Barrierefunktion als auch Biokompatibilität gerecht werden. Die Modifizierung mittels eBeam gewährleistet dabei die gezielte Steuerung der Zellzahl, wodurch die DLC-Beschichtungen auch die biofunktionalen Ansprüche des Anwendungsbeispiels bedienen. DLC-Beschichtungen weisen aufgrund ihrer großen Variabilität hinsichtlich Materialeigenschaften und der sehr guten Biokompatibilität ein breites Spektrum für biomedizinische Anwendungen auf. Die eBeam-Modifizierung der Beschichtungen eröffnet aufgrund ihrer Langzeitstabilität darüber hinaus weitere Einsatzfelder. Vor allem die Option einer partiellen Oberflächenmodifizierung ermöglicht es, variierenden Funktionsansprüchen zahlreicher Anwendungen gerecht zu werden und die im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit gewonnen Erkenntnisse auf weitere Einsatzfelder zu übertragen.

Cette travail été réalisée dans le cadre de la Projet LignoStarch ANR CP2D pour connaître les différents phénomènes induite par rayonnement ionisants dans les mélanges de l'amidon et lignine au niveau moléculaire. L'amidon peut être utilisé seul ou en combinaison avec d'autres composés pour élaborer des articles biodégradables à partir de ressources renouvelables. La lignine et ses dérivés sont bons candidats pour limiter la sensibilité d'eau des matériaux à base d'amidon, mais ils ne sont pas compatibles avec des polysaccharides. Le traitement sous faisceau d'électrons est proposé comme une méthode efficace pour induire les liaisons covalentes entre les deux constituants (amidon et lignine). En comparaison avec les mélanges de départ, les propriétés des mélanges irradiés montrent qu'il est possible d'ajuster les propriétés mécaniques du matériau final. Afin d'améliorer la compréhension et la maîtrise de ces effets de l'irradiation, une étude de mélanges modèles de maltodextrines et de divers alcools ou acides aromatiques a été réalisée. Les résultats montrent une compétition entre les phénomènes de dégradation par scission et le greffage. Les analyses par CES, RMN, et MALDI-TOF permettent de mettre en évidence et de quantifier les greffages consécutifs à l'irradiation. L'exploitation par la méthode statistique proposée par Saito des données relatives à l'évolution des masses molaires et des fractions de gel dans des mélanges à base de pullulane permet d'accéder à des grandeurs quantifiant l'efficacité des deux réactions en compétition. Ainsi, les rendements radiochimiques de coupure de chaine G(S) et de pontage G(X) ont pu être calculés pour différentes quantités d'alcool cinnamique introduites dans les mélanges. Les évolutions observées rendent bien compte de la formation de gel qui n'est observée qu'en présence d'une quantité minimale d'alcool aromatique, lorsque la condition G(s) < 4 G(x) est satisfaite. Mots Clés : Amidon, Lignine, Maltodextrine, Maltotriose, Pullulane, Composés Modèles de la Lignine (Additif Aromatiques), Scission, Réticulation, Greffage, Faisceau d'Electrons, Rendements Radiochimiques de Scission G(s) et Réticulation G(x), Méthode Saito, Méthode Charlesby-Pinner. / This work was part of the LignoStarch ANR CP2D Project aimed at understanding the radiation-induced processes and mechanisms in thermoplastic starch – lignin mixture at the molecular level. Starch has the advantage of being biodegradable and agriculture based renewable resource that can be converted into a thermoplastic material with or without any additive. Lignin and its derivatives are good candidates for reducing the water sensitivity of starch based materials; however being hydrophobic in nature they are not compatible with the polysaccharides. Electron Beam radiation has been proposed as an efficient method for modifying the starch lignin blends and creating covalent linkages between the two constituents for improved blend stability. Previous studies as part of the Project have shown that the mechanical properties of the irradiated blends can be positively modified by choosing an appropriate blend composition. For a better understanding of how the properties of the blend can be tailored, an understanding of the radiation-induced processes was carried out using model blends comprising maltodextrin and different aromatic compounds having structural features of lignin monomers. The blends were analyzed using SEC, NMR, and MALDI-TOF for placing in evidence the phenomenon of radiation-induced grafting to compete with chain scission in presence of the aromatic additives. The quantification of the radiochemical yields of scission G(s) and crosslinking G(x) were carried out using the blends of pullulan polysaccharide as a function of varying amounts of aromatic additive in the blend. The methods of calculation exploited here are based on the study of radiation-induced molecular mass changes before the formation of gel as proposed by Saito and the quantification of sol-gel content for formulations resulting in gel as proposed by the Charlesby-Pinner method. The condition of gel formation G(s) < 4 G(x) is found to be valid for a certain minimum quantity of aromatic additive for high applied doses.Keywords: Starch, Lignin, Maltodextrin, Pullulan, Lignin-like Monomers (Aromatic Additives), Scission, Crosslinking, Grafting, Electron Beam, Radiochemical yields of Scission G(s) and Crosslinking G(x), Saito Method, Charlesby-Pinner Method.

Cubic boron nitride (cBN) synthesis has gained lot of interest during the past decade as it offers outstanding physical and chemical properties like high hardness, high wear resistance, and chemical inertness. Despite of their excellent properties, every application of cBN is hindered by high compressive stresses and poor adhesion. The cost of equipment is also high in almost all the techniques used so far. This thesis deals with the synthesis of cubic phase of boron nitride on Si (100) wafers using electron beam evaporator, a low cost equipment that is capable of depositing films with reduced stresses. Using this process, need of ion beam employed in ion beam assisted processes can be eliminated thus reducing the surface damage and enhancing the film adhesion. Four sets of samples have been deposited by varying substrate temperature and the deposition time. scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) techniques have been used to determine the structure and composition of the films deposited. X-ray diffraction (XRD) was performed on one of the samples to determine the thickness of the film deposited for the given deposition rate. Several samples showed dendrites being formed as a stage of film formation. It was found that deposition at substrate temperature of 400oC and for a period of one hour yielded high quality cubic boron nitride films.