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The aim of this thesis is to study the risk for two Swedish companies, Axfood and Volvo. To test the required return on equity, a bottom-up beta approach and a CAPM regression beta are used. This thesis concludes that the bottom-up beta gives a truer reflection and a more updated beta value than a CAPM regression beta on the firm’s current business mix, the CAPM beta takes only the past stock prices into consideration. The empirical results for Volvo conclude that the levered bottom-up beta is 1.09 and the CAPM β is 0.52 for Volvo. The empirical results for Axfood which is categorized as consumer goods sector implies that the levered bottom-up beta is 0.87 while the CAPM regression beta is 0.29.

Sverige genomförde vid årsskiftet 2012/2013 ytterligare en sänkning av bolagsskatten. Denna gång från 26,3 till 22 procent. Målet med sänkningen var att hamna under EU’s genomsnittliga bolagsskattenivå vilket skulle minska företags incitament till att fly Sverige för lågskatteländer. Samtidigt ville regeringen minska företagens skuldsättningsgrad. I teorin sjunker värdet på skatteskölden vid en bolagsskattesänkning och därmed också värdet på företagen. Från företagens och ägarnas perspektiv innebär sänkt skatt högre nettovinst och således en högre utdelning. Hur reagerar marknaden? Ett försök att besvara frågan görs genom att gruppera företagen efter skuldsättningsgrad och undersöka vad som händer med aktierna under den dag nyheten om bolagsskattesänkningen publiceras. Detta undersöks genom en eventstudie vilken avgränsas till Norden och andra marknader med liknande finansiellt system samt liknande lagstiftning. Till grund för undersökningen ligger aktier representerade på Stockholm OMX Large Cap. Studien finner en signifikant positivt reaktion sett till hela marknaden när nyheten om bolagsskattesänkningen blir offentlig. Vid indelning efter skuldsättningsgrad visar företagen med lägst skuldsättning den högsta positiva reaktionen, medan företagen med högst skuldsättning visar en negativ reaktion, dock inte signifikant. / At the end of 2012 Sweden implemented a further reduction in corporation tax, this time from 26.3 to 22 percent. The goal of the reduction was to reach a lower corporate tax level then the EU’s average. This would reduce the company’s incentive to flee Sweden for low-tax countries. At the same time, the Swedish Government wanted to reduce the debt ratio. In theory, the value of the tax shield is lowered and hence the value of the companies. From corporate and shareholder perspective this reduced tax means higher net income and thus a higher dividend. How does the market react? An attempt to answer this question is made by splitting the companies by leverage and examine what happened to the shares on the day the news of the company tax cut was published. This is examined through an event study, which is bounded to the Nordic countries and to other markets with similar financial systems and similar legislation. The study is based on shares represented at the Stockholm OMX Large Cap. The study finds a significant positive reaction over the entire market when the news about the corporate tax becomes public. On account of the debt-equity ratio, the firms with the lowest leverage show the highest positive response, while the companies with the highest debt show a negative reaction, however not a significant one.

本研究探討我國反資本稀釋稅制在國際會計準則導入後之影響，並以各國目前對於金融工具應分類為負債或權益的規定，以及相對應之股利收入與利息收入課稅方式，了解各國對防止自有資本稀釋的規範，並提出因應國際會計準則導入，我國之反自有資本稀釋條款的可能調整方向。 研究結果分為兩部分：在各國相關稅制上，主要以固定比率法作為反避稅的方法，而美國與德國則以盈餘減除法計算超額利息，英國藉由常規交易原則判斷經濟實質；導入國際會計準則影響上，主要係因具有融資性質的融資租賃分類標準從我國會計準則的規則基礎轉換為國際會計準則的原則基礎，而產生租賃交易的分類變動。另外金融工具在國際會計準則下以該工具的經濟實質予以分類，也與我國過去規定不甚相同，例如特別股、可贖回公司債或附賣回權之金融工具等。此外，對於關係人的認定方式，我國目前現行反自有資本稀釋法規亦與國際會計準則之範圍不同。這些項目在導入IFRS皆有稅法適用上是否配合改變之問題須待釐清。 / This study focused on thin capitalization rules and the impacts of adopting IFRS. It also emphasized the classification of debt and equity instruments of foreign countries, as well as the taxation issues of dividend and interest revenue, to introduce thin capitalization rules of other countries, and the available adjustment of Taiwanese thin capitalization regulation as to respond the adoption of IFRS. The conclusions of this study are divided into two parts. The first part is for other countries’ related regulations. Most countries employ fixed debt/equity ratio approach as the way of anti-avoidance. United States and Germany employ earnings stripping rules approach, while United Kingdom use arm’s length approach. The second part is for the impacts from adoption of IFRS. The impacts are mainly from finance lease and financial instruments’ classification due to the transfer from rule-based to principle-based under IFRS. In addition, financial instruments may have to reclassify with the economics substance, such as preferred stock, callable bonds, and puttable bonds, which are different from Taiwanese original rules. The definition and scope of related party in IFRS are also different and should be clarified.

<p>The aim of this thesis is to study the risk for two Swedish companies, Axfood and Volvo. To test the required return on equity, a bottom-up beta approach and a CAPM regression beta are used. This thesis concludes that the bottom-up beta gives a truer reflection and a more updated beta value than a CAPM regression beta on the firm’s current business mix, the CAPM beta takes only the past stock prices into consideration. The empirical results for Volvo conclude that the levered bottom-up beta is 1.09 and the CAPM β is 0.52 for Volvo. The empirical results for Axfood which is categorized as consumer goods sector implies that the levered bottom-up beta is 0.87 while the CAPM regression beta is 0.29.</p>

Modebranschen är Sveriges största kreativa näring, den är även Sveriges snabbast växande exportindustri. Trots det, så är modebranschen tillika en av de mest känsliga och utsatta branscherna, som till stor grad påverkas av yttre faktorer. Konsumtionen har under de senaste åren gått neråt och valet rörande hur de svenska modeföretagen väljer att finansiera sig kan minst sagt komma att bli ett betydelsefullt beslut i denna lättpåverkade bransch. Denna studie undersöker om det finns en skillnad i hur kapitalstrukturen hos de svenska börsnoterade modeföretagen ser ut. Samt om denna struktur är beroende av om företagsledningen äger en stor andel aktier i företaget. Studien analyserar vidare om det finns ett samband mellan ägarstyrda företagsledningar och skuldsättningsgraden i företaget. Studien baseras på en kvantitativ studie av de svenska, börsnoterade modeföretagen; Hennes &amp; Mauritz, KappAhl, MQ Holding, Venue Retail Group, RNB Retail and Brands och Odd Molly International. Undersökningen utgår från modeföretagens årsredovisningar, för att på så vis tillhandahålla information gällande företagens finansieringskällor, samt för att kunna utläsa hur många personer av de i företagsledningen som innehar aktier i företaget. Resultatet visar att en majoritet av de svenska börsnoterade modeföretagen har en kapitalstruktur som till större del består av eget kapital, och till mindre del av skulder. En majoritet har vidare en företagsledning där mer än hälften även äger aktier i företaget. / The fashion industry is Sweden's largest creative industry and Sweden's fastest export industry. Nevertheless, the fashion industry is one of the most vulnerable and exposed industries, that are also affected by external factors. The consumption has fallen in recent years, and the choice of how fashion companies are to finance themselves can be a significant decision in this easily affected industry. This study investigates whether there is a difference in the capital structure of listed fashion companies, depending on whether the management holds a large share of equities in the company or not. Furthermore, the study analyses whether there is a correlation between the company's debt-to-equity ratio and the management's ownership. The study is based on a quantitative study, analyzing the Swedish listed companies; Hennes &amp; Mauritz, KappAhl, MQ Holding, Venue Retail Group, RNB Retail and Brands and Odd Molly International, in order to read the link between management and debt-to-equity ratios. The survey is based on the fashion companies' annual reports, to provide information about the sources of funding. As well as to identify how many of the people in the company's board and management that hold shares in the company. The result shows that a majority of the Swedish listed companies holds a capital structure that largely consists of equity, and a small portion of liabilities. A majority also has a management team where more than half of them also own shares in the company.

This study investigated the determinants of capital structure of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in the Buffalo city municipality in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. The objectives of the study were, to ascertain whether the use of internal equity (retained profits) was positively or negatively related to the size, age and profitability of the firm. Furthermore the study examined if the use of external equity (capital from owners) was negatively or positively related to the age, size and profitability of the firm. Finally the study wanted to establish if the use of debt was positively or negatively related to the size, age and profitability of the firm. To achieve these objectives, the study hypothesised that age, size and profitability amongst other factors were determinants of capital structure. The study further hypothesised that the use of retained profits by SMEs was negatively related with age, size and profitability of the firm. Furthermore the study hypothesised that the use of external equity by SMEs was negatively related with age, size and profitability of the firm. Finally, the study hypothesised that the use of debt by SMEs was negatively related to the size, age and profitability of the firm. The results revealed that size, age and profitability of the firm were some of the major determinants of capital structure. Finally, the study recommended that SMEs, commercial banks and the South African government take measures to improve access to capital by SMEs. Such measures included government intervention in reducing discrimination from the banks as well as encouragement of SMEs training and education so that they are empowered with business and financial management skills.

This thesis’ aim is to study four Swedish real estate companies between the years 2006-2015 to see whether their capital structure and investment strategies have changed over the years. The data upon which the thesis is based, is gathered from the four companies’ annual reports. These years are of interest due to the changing economic environment, both in Sweden and the world, during this time period. The time period includes one financial crisis and a never before experienced interest rate environment with rates around zero percent. Traditional capital structure- and diversification theories have been overviewed and serves as the base for the discussion regarding the results from the gathered data. Two hypotheses have been constructed to study this topic:  The low interest rate environment has provided the real estate sector with access to more capital, which has led to real estate companies increasing their financial leverage, i.e. the capital structure has changed.  The accessibility of capital in the market, combined with funds actively seeking return on capital in real estate, increases the competition and decreases yield spreads, which in turn leads to real estate companies investing capital in markets associated with higher risks. The result indicates that the hypotheses are incorrect. The real estate companies have not increased their financial risk through an increase in their long term debt at the end of the studied time period. However, the companies have increased their borrowing but the financial risk has not increased since their equity has increased proportionally. The studied real estate companies have not been mainly investing in markets associated with higher risk. Increased investment volumes have been observed all over Sweden. The investment strategies differ between the companies; some invest mainly in the bigger cities while some invest mainly in smaller cities. / Uppsatsen handlar om hur kapitalstrukturen samt fastighetsinnehavet (geografiskt och fastighetstyp) hos fyra svenska fastighetsbolag har förändrats under tidsperioden 2006-2015. Data från de fyra fastighetsbolagens årsredovisningar ligger till grund för studien. Dessa år har studerats på grund av det förändrade ekonomiska läget i både Sverige och världen med gott finansiellt klimat, en finanskris och ett tidigare aldrig upplevt ekonomiskt klimat med räntor kring 0 procent. Traditionella kapitalstruktur- och diversifieringsteorier har behandlats och ligger till grund för diskussionen kring resultatet av den insamlade datan. Två hypoteser har konstruerats för att undersöka detta ämne:  Fastighetsbolagens långfristiga skulder har ökat de senare åren av tidsperioden till följd av ränteläget dessa år eftersom kostnaderna för kapital under denna tid har minskat. Detta har ökat företagens finansiella risk i slutet av perioden jämfört tidsperiodens start.  Det låga ränteläget i slutet av tidsperioden har medfört att fastighetsbolagen har sökt nya marknader för att kunna få avkastning på sitt kapital, d.v.s. sökt sig till marknader med högre risk utanför Sveriges storstäder. Resultatet pekar på att hypoteserna inte stämmer. Fastighetsbolagen har inte ökat sin finansiella risk till följd av ökad lånefinansiering i slutet av tidsperioden. Däremot stämmer det att bolagen har ökat sina långfristiga skulder mot tidsperiodens slut, dock ökar inte den finansiella risken eftersom det egna kapitalet ökar proportionellt med deras ökade belåning. De studerade fastighetsbolagen har inte endast sökt sig till marknader med högre risk i mindre städer i Sverige, utan en ökning av investeringsvolymer har observerats i hela Sverige. Investeringsstrategierna skiljer sig åt mellan fastighetsbolagen, en del investerar främst i storstäderna medan andra investerar kapital i mindre städer

Finansiering utgör en viktig del i att möjliggöra omställning mot miljövänligare företag. Möjligheten att anskaffa kapital och övergå till ett miljövänligare företag är samtidigt emellanåt bristfälligt. Det gäller även för industriföretag där branschen är inne i en omställning mot Industri 4.0, vilket förväntas bidra till miljövänligare företag. I den här studien undersöks sambandet mellan miljöprestation i västerländska industriföretags och företagens finansiering. Utifrån tidigare forskning om finansiering med anknytning till finansieringsbeslut, samt hur hållbarhetsmått kan ha inverkan vid finansiering, har industriföretagen analyserats. Studien utgår från en kvantitativ metod, där sekundärdata har hämtats från Thomson Reuters Refinitiv Eikon. Med insamlad data analyseras industriföretags kapitalstruktur gentemot deras miljöprestation genom en multivariat regressionsanalys. Studiens resultat påvisar inget statistiskt signifikant samband mellan industriföretags kapitalstruktur och deras miljöbetyg. Av den anledningen konstateras det att miljöprestation inte har något statistiskt signifikant samband med företagens tillvägagångssätt vid finansiering. Därtill konstateras det även utifrån studiens analys att informationsasymmetrin är densamma oberoende på miljöprestation. Studien bidrar med ökad förståelse beträffande sambandet mellan industriföretags miljöprestation och hur de finansierar sig. / Financial opportunities are an important part of the transition towards environmentally friendly companies. The ability to raise capital for this transition in companies is at the same time, to some extent, inadequate. These inadequacies also affect industrial companies, a sector in transition towards “Industry 4.0”, which is expected to lower the environmental impact in the industry. This study examines the relation between environmental performance of industrial companies in western countries and their financing decisions. The industrial companies have been analyzed with regard to previous studies related to financial decisions and the effect of sustainable measures on financial opportunities. The study applies a quantitative method and uses secondary data collected from Thomson Reuters Refinitiv Eikon. With the gathered data the capital structure of the industrial companies have been analyzed compared to their environmental performance, by using a multivariate regression analysis. The findings of the study shows that environmental performance has no significant correlation with industrial companies capital structure. The findings also implies that information asymmetry, risk and uncertainties are not affected by the company's environmental performance. This study contributes to an extended understanding about the relation between environmental performance and industrial companies financing.