The solar PV modules are influenced by a variety of loss mechanisms by which the energy yield is affected. A PV system is the sum of individual PV modules which should ideally operate similarly, however, inhomogeneous soiling, mismatching, and degradation, which are the main focus in this study, lead to dissimilarities in PV modules operating behavior and thus, lead to losses which will be assessed intensively in terms of energy yield. The dissimilarities in PV modules are referred to the ambient conditions or the PV modules characteristics which result in different modules’ maximum power point (MPP) and thus, different currents generated by each PV modules which cause the mismatching. However, the weakest PV module current governs the string current, and the weakest string voltage governs the voltage. Power optimizers are electronic devices connected to the PV modules which adjust the voltages of the PV modules in order to obtain the same current as the weakest module and thus, extract the modules’ MPP. Hence, the overall performance of the PV plant is enhanced. On the other hand, the power optimizers add additional cost to the plant’s investment cost and thus, the extra energy yield achieved by utilizing the power optimizers must be sufficient to compensate the additional cost of the power optimizers. This is assessed by designing three systems, a reference system with SMA inverters, a system utilizes Tigo power optimizers and SMA inverters, and a system utilizes SolarEdge power optimizers and inverters. The study considers four different locations which are Borlänge, Madrid, Abu Dhabi, and New Delhi. An Excel model is created and validated to emulate the inhomogeneous soiling and to evaluate the economic feasibility of the power optimiz ers. The model’s inputs are obtained from PVsyst and the precipitation data is obtained from Meteoblue and SMHI database. The economic model is based on the relation between Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE) which will be used to derive the discount rate. Graphs representing the discounted payback period as a function of the feed-in tariff for different discount rates is created in order to obtain the discounted payback period. The amount of extra energy yielded by the Tigo and the SolarEdge systems is dependent on the soiling accumulated on the PV modules. Relative to the reference system, 6.5 % annual energy gain by the systems utilizing the power optimizers in soiling conditions, up to 2.1 % in the degradation conditions, and up to 9.7 % annual energy gain at 10 % mismatching rate. The extra energy yield is dependent on the location, however, the Tigo and the SolarEdge systems have yielded more energy than the reference system in all cases except one case when the mismatch losses is set to zero. The precipitation pattern is very influential, and a scare precipitation leads to a reduction in the energy yield, in this case, the Tigo and the SolarEdge systems overall performance is enhanced and the extra energy gain becomes greater. The Tigo system yield slightly more energy than the SolarEdge system in most cases, however, during the plant’s lifetime, the SolarEdge system could become more efficient than the Tigo system which is referred to the system’s sizing ratio. The degradation of the system or the soiling accumulation decreases the irradiation and thus, a slightly oversized PV array become suitable and deliver an optimal power to the inverters. The SolarEdge system is feasible in all scenarios in terms of LCOE and discounted payback period, although its slightly lower performance relative to the Tigo system, this is referred to its low initial cost in comparison to the other systems. The Tigo system is mostly infeasible although it yields more energy than the reference and the SolarEdge systems, this is referred iii to its relatively high initial cost. However, feed- in tariffs higher than 20 € cent / kWh make all systems payback within less than 10 years. The results have overall uncertainty within ± 6.5 % including PVsyst, Excel model, and the precipitation uncertainties. The uncertainty in the degradation and the mismatching calculations is limited to PVsyst uncertainty which is ± 5 %. The uncertainties in LCOE in the location of New Delhi, since it is the worst-case scenario, are 5.1 % and 4 % for the reference and the systems utilizing power optimizers, respectively. Consequently, accommodating the uncertainties to the benefits gained by utilizing power optimizers indicates that the energy gain would oscillate in the range of 6 % - 6.9 % for the soiling calculations, 2 % - 2.2 % for the degradation simulations, and 9.2 % - 10.2 % for the mismatching simulations at 10 % mismatchrate.

Au cours de la dernière décennie, le marché photovoltaïque a été multiplié par 10, le prix des panneaux solaires réduit de 60%, et la Chine est devenue le premier producteur mondial. L'objectif de cette thèse est d'identifier les mécanismes à l'origine de ces fortes mutations. Grâce à des entretiens auprès d'acteurs de l'industrie photovoltaïque chinoise, et l'analyse de données de brevets, nous expliquons comment la Chine a réussi à acquérir la technologie et le savoir-faire nécessaires à ce succès. Le transfert de technologie a eu lieu grâce au déploiement du marché d'équipement de production et au recrutement de cadres formés dans les pays industrialisés. En revanche, la propriété intellectuelle n'a joué aucun rôle. L'analyse de l'évolution du coût des modules grâce au modèle de courbe d'apprentissage nous permet de prédire une réduction du coût de deux tiers d'ici à 2020. Elle donne des indications quant à la future compétitivité de l'électricité photovoltaïque. Enfin, une attention particulière est portée aux tarifs de rachat de l'électricité, qui ont largement contribué au développement du marché photovoltaïque. Nous analysons leur influence sur le marché et leur capacité à s'adapter à la volatilité du prix des modules, en analysant des séries temporelles. Nous construisons aussi un modèle théorique pour analyser l'influence du comportement stratégique des entreprises sur l'efficacité d'un tarif de rachat. Cela permet de suggérer des recommandations quant à la conception de ces instruments incitatifs. / In the last decade, the photovoltaic market was multiplied by 10, module price was reduced by 60%, and China increased its share in cell and module production from almost nothing to more than half. The purpose of this thesis is to shed light on the mechanisms driving these transformations. We analyse how China managed to acquire the photovoltaic technology, relying on interviews with actors of the Chinese photovoltaic industry, and data gathered on patents related to the photovoltaic technology. We show that intellectual property rights did not play a significant role, Chinese firms getting access to the technology by buying manufacturing equipment from industrialised countries, and from labour mobility. The cost decrease is analysed with experience curves models, allowing us to forecast a further cost decrease of two thirds by 2020, provided that the market follows the high predicted expansion. It gives some insight regarding when photovoltaic technology will become competitive. An important attention is dedicated to feed-in tariffs which largely participated in driving the demand so far. Their influence on the photovoltaic market, and their ability to adapt to module price volatility to avoid too attractive profits, is analysed using weekly data. A theoretical model analysing the influence of firms' strategies on the incentive effect of feed-in tariffs allows us to give further recommendations concerning an optimal feed-in tariff scheme.

Demand for cloud-based applications and remote digital storage is increasing. As such, data center capacities will need to expand to support this shift in computing. Data centers consume substantial amounts of electricity in support of their operations, and larger data centers will mean that more energy is consumed. To reduce electricity bills, data center operators must explore innovative options, and this thesis proposes leveraging solar technology for this purpose. Three different photovoltaic and concentrated photovoltaic costing scenarios, as well as four different Ontario-based electricity tariff scenarios – time-of-use, feed-in tariff, power purchase agreement, and a peak-dependent electricity charge involving the province’s global adjustment fee – will be used to determine if there is a business case for using solar technology at data centers in Ontario to reduce energy costs. Discounted net present value, return on investment, internal rate of return, and levelized cost of electricity will be calculated to determine the economic viability of solar for this application, and both deterministic and stochastic results will be provided. Sensitivity of the four metrics to variability from energy yield, operations and maintenance costs, as well as system prices will also be presented.

Renewable energy sources support policy employs a great variety of economic tools in order to promote the use of green energy. Following thesis at first offers an overview and economic insight into the most applied ones. Since the majority of the European Union Member States nowadays prefer so-called feed-in tariffs schemes we proceed in-depth analysis of effectiveness of that instrument in electricity sector in four selected European countries Austria, Czech Republic, Germany and Spain. An effectiveness indicator which compares marginal electricity generation potential with additional realizable potential of particular renewable energy sources technology is used for that analysis. The results clearly show that the best practice of feed-in tariff design is pursued in Germany where the special set of tariff design and adjustment measures is applied.

Climate change is one of the most challenging crises in sustainable development agenda. Tackling the problem requires the global transition towards renewable and sustainable energies. The uptake of these new technologies is often supported by policies and technological know-how that is developed by early adopters, and later spread and transferred to other places. Although renewable technology transfer and diffusion have long been studied, the question of how supporting policies flow from one country to another, and how they are adapted to the local contexts are merely investigated. This paper sheds some light on the process, mechanisms, and dynamics of policy transfer, and investigate the influences of national contextual characters on the adoption of policy from other countries, using Thailand's feed-in tariff policy as an example. The study applies an adapted version of ‘Dolowitz and Marsh model (1996, 2000, 2012)’ as the guiding policy transfer framework to analyse the information gathered through literature study and fieldwork, and to present the results and findings. The study discovers that policy transfer is not a straightforward process with a clear transfer timeline and boundary, but rather a dynamic and complex process that involves interactions with many factors, internal and external, and are continuously shaping the process and outcomes of the transfer. Moreover, the case study proves that Dolowitz and Marsh model is a useful and effective framework to understand and depict the process. However, if to treat policy transfer as an independent variable affecting the process outcomes, it would need to combine other frameworks, for instance, Marsh and McConnell Model (2010), to give an in-depth and comprehensive analysis to measure the success of policy transfer and policymaking. / Förnybar energi är en av de viktigaste lösningarna för att ta itu med klimatförändringarna. Utnyttjandet av denna nya teknik stöds alltid av politik, som vanligtvis utvecklas av ett land och överförs till andra länder. Denna avhandling använder ramen för policyöverföring för att analysera hur feed-in tariffpolitik från Europa spred sig och överförs till Thailand. Fallet belyser processen, mekanismerna och dynamiken för att illustrera hur politik som utvecklats av ett land inspirerade andra länder med deras beslutsfattande.

With environmental concerns and energy needs increasing, many regions in the world are promoting renewable energy technologies making use of various policy instruments. Although today the PV systems price is decreasing, which gives it a competitive edge; we see the technology still being dependent on policy instruments for its dissemination.   The aim of this study is to research on whether or not a solar PV system is economically viable under certain circumstances. The study analyzes this by performing a cost beneficial analysis for the lifetime of the solar PV system making use of a discounted savings model. The systems being considered in this study are from California and Germany as these regions are leading in solar PV dissemination in their respective regions. The policies that are aiding the deployment of solar PV technologies are varied and thus this study compares benefits from different policy instrument for a residential customer investing in a solar PV system.   The research objectives in this study are pursued making use of major concepts such as Grid Parity, Levelized Cost of Electricity and financial methods such as discounting.  Further, to understand how the different independent variables such as retail electricity prices, PV system pricing, WACC, self-consumption rate and storage availability are having an impact and how the results change with variation in these variables, a sensitivity analysis is conducted.   The results obtained in this study show that a solar PV system installed in California and Germany both make net benefits over their lifetime. When compared, the Californian solar PV system under the Net Energy Metering policy is making more net economic benefits in the range of $ 40,351 in Eureka and $53,510 in San Francisco; when compared to the German solar PV systems under the Feed in Tariff ranging $4,465 in Berlin and $11,769 in Munich. Furthermore the Californian solar PV systems still prove to be more beneficial even when compared to the German solar PV systems under the self-consumption law of the Feed in Tariff ranging $ 6,443 in Berlin and $ 13,141 in Munich.  But when the self-consumption rate is increased in the German case, it is noted that the associated benefits increase.   The study at hand thus results in the California Net Energy Meter policy instrument proving to be more beneficial to a residential customer than the German Feed in tariff with and without self-consumption. Another important finding made in this study is that despite the German solar PV system making lesser benefits than the Californian ones, they attain Grid Parity before the ones in California.

Woodroll® is a gasification technology developed by Cortus that produces synthetic gas (syngas) from biomass. Syngas can be used in several different applications. One interesting option is to convert it further into biomethane, which can be used as automotive fuel or replace natural gas in gas grids. The revenues and profitability of biomethane production is heavily dependent on policy instruments and support schemes. These subsidies can be either direct, where the producer receives a feed-in tariff for biomethane production, or indirect, where consumption rather than production is stimulated. This work has investigated which revenues that can be expected from biomethane production via Woodrooll® in Sweden, the Netherlands, Germany, the UK, France and Italy, both in terms of amounts and risks. A profitability analysis have also been carried out to preliminary compare the returns in the different countries, where two different scenarios for different revenues have been analyzed for two different feedstock prices. The results showed that the Netherlands and Italy provides the potentially highest revenues. However, there are uncertainty factors associated with all cases. Sweden and Germany offers indirect support and negative market trends. The Netherlands and the UK are the only options that provide a feed-in tariff for biomethane production via gasification. In the Netherlands the tariff can be secured before making investment decision but is only disbursed for 12 years. The UK offers a fixed feed-in tariff for 20 years but the tariff is secured first after plant start-up and the tariff may be reduced on a quarterly basis. In fact, the tariff has been reduced with 40 % over the last 24 months, but there are discussions on introducing a separate tariff for gasification. Italy has the support schemes that potentially offer the highest revenues, but gasification is currently not eligible for support. The latter also holds for France, which may be an interesting case in the future. If risk is to be minimized, Cortus may either focus on the Netherlands or await the discussions in the UK and France on introducing a gasification tariff. The work on standardization of biomethane use should also be followed since Italy offers the potentially highest return of the investigated countries. It is also recommended to look further for other cases. The best-case scenario for the risk averse is the one that provides a fixed tariff for 20 years and in which the tariff can be secured before an investment decision is taken. / Woodroll® är en förgasningateknik som utvecklats av Cortus som producerar syntesgas (syngas) från biomassa. Det finns en rad olika användningsområden för gasen. Ett intressant sådant är att omvandla den till biometan, vilket kan användas som drivmedel eller ersätta naturgas i gasnät. Dock så är intäktern och lönsamheten starkt beroende av stödsystem. Dessa subventioner kan antingen vara i form av en inmatningstariff, där biometanproducenten får en fast peng för biometanproduktion, eller i form av indirekt stöd där konsumtion snarare än produktion stimuleras. I detta arbete har det utretts vilka intäkter som kan förväntas för biometan-produktion genom Woodroll® i Sverige, Nederländerna, Tyskland, Storbritanninen, Frankrike och Italien, både i termer av belopp och risk. En lönsamhetsanalys har också gjorts för att preliminärt jämföra avkastningen för de olika länderna. Två olika scenarier för olika intäkter har analyserats för två olika råvarupriser. Resultatet visade att samtliga länder kan erbjuda attraktiv avkastning. Dock är samtliga fall förknippade med osäkerhetsfaktorer. Sverige och Tyskland erbjuder indirekt stöd och negativa marknadstrender. Nederländerna och Storbritannien är de enda alternativen som ger en feed-in-tariff för biometanproduktion. I Nederländerna kan tariffen säkras innan investeringsbeslut fattats men betalas endast i 12 år. Storbritannien ger en fast tariff i 20 år men kan justeras kvarstalsvis och nivån säkras först efter uppstart av anläggningen. Tariffen har reducerats med 40 % de senaste 24 månaderna, men det pågår diskussioner om att introducera en särskild tariff för förgasning. Italien erbjuder stödsystemet som ger högst potentiella intäkter men biometan från förgasning är inte berättigat för stödet. Det senare gäller också för Frankrike som kan bli ett intressant fall i framtiden. Om det önskas att minimera risken så bör Cortus fokusera antingen på Nederländerna eller invänta diskussionerna om förgasningstariffen i Storbritannien och Frankrike. Arbetet kring standardisering av biometan-användning bör också följas eftersom Italien erbjuder de potentiellt högsta intäkterna. Det rekommenderas också att Cortus tittar vidare på andra alternativ. Det bästa fallet för den risk-aversiva är fallet som ger en fast tariff i 20 år och där stödet kan säkras innan investeringsbeslut fattas.

As energias renováveis têm lugar de destaque entre as soluções de combate ao aquecimento global, mas seu potencial ainda é subaproveitado no Brasil. Este trabalho visa apresentar argumentos político-estratégicos, socioambientais e econômico-financeiros necessários para viabilizar o desenvolvimento da comercialização de novas fontes de energias renováveis e, consequentemente, o estabelecimento de um mercado nacional maduro para estas fontes. São apresentadas justificativas socioambientais e técnicas para ampliar a produção de energia elétrica a partir de novas fontes renováveis como eólica, biomassa, solar e pequenas centrais hidroelétricas. Foi abordado o importante papel da política tarifária e o atual modelo do setor elétrico, assim como o forte impacto dos encargos e tributos sobre o preço final da energia e as questões relacionadas à revisão tarifária e seu impacto em áreas rurais e urbanizadas. Foi apresentado um cenário de participação das novas fontes de energias renováveis na matriz elétrica brasileira indicando o forte potencial de expansão destas fontes, valorizando a descentralização e diversificação da matriz para promoção da equidade e justiça e desvinculação entre o crescimento econômico e a ampliação da geração de energia. Foram apresentados vários modelos de mercado e concluiu-se que o modelo da competição no varejo é a melhor opção para a viabilização de uma comercializadora de novas fontes de energias renováveis. Foram apresentados estudos de casos em diversos países da Europa, Ásia e Américas e a análise de seus pontos mais interessantes visando contribuir para o desenvolvimento de um marco regulatório específico para fomentar um mercado nacional de energias renováveis. Entre as políticas referidas estão o sistema de cotas; sistema de licitação; subsídios e principalmente a tarifa feed-in, que atende em melhores condições diretrizes relevantes como a redução dos impactos ambientais, o desenvolvimento tecnológico nacional, a estabilidade de mercado e a ampliação de fontes limpas na matriz elétrica. Por fim, foi feita uma análise econômica de distintas fontes renováveis em condições variadas de mercado como taxa de retorno, custo de transmissão, crédito de carbono e outros. Desta forma foi possível avaliar as melhores e piores condições de formação de preço final por tecnologia (eólica, biomassa e PCHs) para implementação de uma comercializadora de energia. Neste estudo, foi possível avaliar o impacto da tarifa de transmissão assim como a sensibilidade do preço final da energia em relação à eventual flutuação do câmbio, para energias com maior parte de componentes precificados em moeda estrangeira. O trabalho conclui que a viabilização de uma comercializadora de energia renovável no país depende fundamentalmente de um marco regulatório estável, uma política financeira e fiscal de longo prazo e um modelo de mercado aberto. / Renewable energy plays a key role as part of the solutions to the climate change crisis. However, the potential for new renewable energy is underdeveloped in Brazil. This dissertation presents the necessary arguments to promote the development of the commercialization of new renewable energy sources within the political-strategic, socio-environmental and Economic-financial aspects for the implementation of a mature national market. Environmental, social and technical justification is used to enhance the expansion of electric energy generation from renewable sources such as wind, biomass, solar and small hydropower. The important role of tariff policy, the current model of the energy sector and the impact of taxes and fees in both rural and urban areas was also addressed in the text. A scenario is presented indicating the potential share of renewable energies in the electric matrix of the country and its expansion potential. The scenario emphasizes the decentralization and diversification of the energy matrix as well as promotes equitable justice and decouples the economic growth from new energy generation. A wide number of electricity trading markets were discussed and the competitive retail one was identified as the most suitable for the commercialization of new renewable energy sources. The most interesting elements of a number of case studies in Europe, Asia and US were analyzed to contribute to the discussion of a regulatory framework to develop a renewable energy market in Brazil. Among them the quota system; the auction system; the subsidies and finally the feed-in system that better addresses the reduction of environmental impact, national technology development, market stability and the expansion of renewable sources in the electricity matrix. Finally, an economic analysis of different renewable technologies (wind, biomass, small hydro) was deployed varying the return of investment rate, the grid cost, the carbon credits and others. The economic simulation set a price range with the best and worst conditions per technology for consideration in the commercialization of renewable Energy. In this study it was possible to evaluate the impact of the grid fee or the exchange rate for technologies with many imported components. The work concludes that the feasibility of the commercialization of renewable energy in the country relies mainly on stable regulatory framework, a financial and fiscal long term policy and an open energy market model.

As energias renováveis têm lugar de destaque entre as soluções de combate ao aquecimento global, mas seu potencial ainda é subaproveitado no Brasil. Este trabalho visa apresentar argumentos político-estratégicos, socioambientais e econômico-financeiros necessários para viabilizar o desenvolvimento da comercialização de novas fontes de energias renováveis e, consequentemente, o estabelecimento de um mercado nacional maduro para estas fontes. São apresentadas justificativas socioambientais e técnicas para ampliar a produção de energia elétrica a partir de novas fontes renováveis como eólica, biomassa, solar e pequenas centrais hidroelétricas. Foi abordado o importante papel da política tarifária e o atual modelo do setor elétrico, assim como o forte impacto dos encargos e tributos sobre o preço final da energia e as questões relacionadas à revisão tarifária e seu impacto em áreas rurais e urbanizadas. Foi apresentado um cenário de participação das novas fontes de energias renováveis na matriz elétrica brasileira indicando o forte potencial de expansão destas fontes, valorizando a descentralização e diversificação da matriz para promoção da equidade e justiça e desvinculação entre o crescimento econômico e a ampliação da geração de energia. Foram apresentados vários modelos de mercado e concluiu-se que o modelo da competição no varejo é a melhor opção para a viabilização de uma comercializadora de novas fontes de energias renováveis. Foram apresentados estudos de casos em diversos países da Europa, Ásia e Américas e a análise de seus pontos mais interessantes visando contribuir para o desenvolvimento de um marco regulatório específico para fomentar um mercado nacional de energias renováveis. Entre as políticas referidas estão o sistema de cotas; sistema de licitação; subsídios e principalmente a tarifa feed-in, que atende em melhores condições diretrizes relevantes como a redução dos impactos ambientais, o desenvolvimento tecnológico nacional, a estabilidade de mercado e a ampliação de fontes limpas na matriz elétrica. Por fim, foi feita uma análise econômica de distintas fontes renováveis em condições variadas de mercado como taxa de retorno, custo de transmissão, crédito de carbono e outros. Desta forma foi possível avaliar as melhores e piores condições de formação de preço final por tecnologia (eólica, biomassa e PCHs) para implementação de uma comercializadora de energia. Neste estudo, foi possível avaliar o impacto da tarifa de transmissão assim como a sensibilidade do preço final da energia em relação à eventual flutuação do câmbio, para energias com maior parte de componentes precificados em moeda estrangeira. O trabalho conclui que a viabilização de uma comercializadora de energia renovável no país depende fundamentalmente de um marco regulatório estável, uma política financeira e fiscal de longo prazo e um modelo de mercado aberto. / Renewable energy plays a key role as part of the solutions to the climate change crisis. However, the potential for new renewable energy is underdeveloped in Brazil. This dissertation presents the necessary arguments to promote the development of the commercialization of new renewable energy sources within the political-strategic, socio-environmental and Economic-financial aspects for the implementation of a mature national market. Environmental, social and technical justification is used to enhance the expansion of electric energy generation from renewable sources such as wind, biomass, solar and small hydropower. The important role of tariff policy, the current model of the energy sector and the impact of taxes and fees in both rural and urban areas was also addressed in the text. A scenario is presented indicating the potential share of renewable energies in the electric matrix of the country and its expansion potential. The scenario emphasizes the decentralization and diversification of the energy matrix as well as promotes equitable justice and decouples the economic growth from new energy generation. A wide number of electricity trading markets were discussed and the competitive retail one was identified as the most suitable for the commercialization of new renewable energy sources. The most interesting elements of a number of case studies in Europe, Asia and US were analyzed to contribute to the discussion of a regulatory framework to develop a renewable energy market in Brazil. Among them the quota system; the auction system; the subsidies and finally the feed-in system that better addresses the reduction of environmental impact, national technology development, market stability and the expansion of renewable sources in the electricity matrix. Finally, an economic analysis of different renewable technologies (wind, biomass, small hydro) was deployed varying the return of investment rate, the grid cost, the carbon credits and others. The economic simulation set a price range with the best and worst conditions per technology for consideration in the commercialization of renewable Energy. In this study it was possible to evaluate the impact of the grid fee or the exchange rate for technologies with many imported components. The work concludes that the feasibility of the commercialization of renewable energy in the country relies mainly on stable regulatory framework, a financial and fiscal long term policy and an open energy market model.

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