El cicle cellular és el conjunt d'esdeveniments ordenats que permeten a la cèllula donar lloc a dues cèllules filles genèticament idèntiques. Diversos senyals externs i interns regulen aquest procés per a que la cèllula proliferi només en les condicions apropiades. Un punt de control important pel que fa a la coordinació de la proliferació amb el creixement cellular es troba en la fase G1 (punt de restricció), on la cèllula comprova que ha adquirit la massa i la maquinària necessària per la replicació del DNA. Les ciclines D són molècules que juguen un paper clau en la regulació de la fase G1. Les cèllules de mamífer contenen gens que codifiquen per 3 ciclines de tipus D altament homòlogues (D1, D2, D3), que s'expressen de manera específica de teixit i s'associen a Cdk4 o Cdk6 per formar una proteïna quinasa activa. D'aquestes tres ciclines la ciclina D1 és la més estudiada ja que es troba freqüentment superexpressada en molts càncers humans. L'expressió de ciclina D1 i la seva unió a Cdk4 representa un dels esdeveniments més importants, regulats per senyals mitogènics, necessaris per la progressió del cicle cellular a través del punt de restricció. Les cèllules inhibeixen l'entrada en cicle en la fase G1 principalment per dos mecanismes diferents: la disminució de l'expressió de ciclines D i l'augment de les proteïnes KIP que inhibeixen l'activitat residual del complex Cdk4/6ciclina D. Tot i discrepàncies d'origen metodològic, diferents estudis han observat l'acumulació de la ciclina D1 en el citoplasma de cèllules quiescents o diferenciades, suggerint l'existència d'altres mecanismes que podrien regular l'activitat dels complexes Cdk4ciclina D1 a nivell de la seva distribució nucleocitoplasmàtica. D'altra banda, en el nostre laboratori s'havia desvetllat un mecanisme de retenció citoplasmàtica de Cln3, l'homòleg funcional de ciclina D1 en llevat de gemmació, que regula l'entrada en cicle i juga un paper molt important en la coordinació entre creixement i proliferació. Aquests antecedents ens van conduir a plantejar com a hipòtesi de treball d'aquesta tesi doctoral l'existència d'un mecanisme de control de la localització de la ciclina D1 entre el nucli i el citoplasma, que podria tenir un paper especialment rellevant en situacions d'aturada de la proliferació cellular. En aquest treball hem demostrat que la ciclina D1 es localitza en el citoplasma de fibroblasts embrionaris de ratolí quiescents, i que això succeeix per un mecanisme independent de l'export mediat per Crm1. De la cerca d'interactors de ciclina D1 per dihíbrid i copurificació hem identificat la transloquina, una proteïna que havia estat descrita com a important en el procés d'import nuclear de FGF2. En observar durant el nostre treball que FGF2 és un potent estimulador de l'acumulació nuclear de ciclina D1, varem decidir analitzar en detall les seves implicacions funcionals. La superexpressió de transloquina inhibeix l'acumulació nuclear de ciclina D1 en cèllules proliferant. En canvi, la inhibició de l'expressió de transloquina causa l'efecte oposat, és a dir, indueix l'acumulació nuclear de ciclina D1 i la fosforilació de RB per Cdk4 en cèllules sotmeses a condicions de quiescència. En resum, en aquest treball de tesi doctoral hem desvetllat i descrit un mecanisme de retenció citoplasmàtica de la ciclina D1 en fibroblasts embrionaris de ratolí, on la transloquina hi juga un paper important per a mantenir l'estat de quiescència cellular. La transloquina i Cdk4 s'uneixen i competeixen pel mateix domini de ciclina D1 i, donat que cal la formació prèvia del complex Cdk4ciclina D1 per al seu import nuclear, aquest fet permet establir una base molecular senzilla pel propi mecanisme de retenció citoplasmàtica. / El ciclo celular es el conjunto de sucesos ordenados que permiten a la célula originar dos células hijas genéticamente idénticas. Distintas señales internas y externas regulan este proceso para que las células proliferen sólo en las condiciones más apropiadas. Uno de los puntos de control importantes, donde se coordina la proliferación con el crecimiento celular se encuentra en la fase G1 (punto de restricción). En este punto la célula comprueba que ha adquirido la masa y la maquinaria necesaria para la replicación del DNA. Las ciclinas D son moléculas que tienen un papel clave en la regulación de la fase G1. Las células de mamífero contienen genes que codifican para tres ciclina tipo D altamente homólogas (D1, D2, D3), que se expresan de forma específica de tejido y se asocian a Cdk4 o Cdk6 para formar una proteína quinasa activa. Entre las tres ciclinas, la ciclina D1 es la más estudiada, ya que se encuentra sobrexpresada en muchos cánceres humanos. La expresión de ciclina D1 y su unión con Cdk4 representa uno de los acontecimientos más importantes, regulados por señales mitogénicas, necesarios para la progresión del ciclo celular a través del punto de restricción. Las células inhiben la entrada en ciclo en la fase G1 principalmente por dos mecanismos distintos: la disminución de la expresión de ciclinas D y el aumento de las proteínas KIP que inhiben la actividad residual del complejo Cdk4/6ciclina D. A pesar de alguna inconsistencia de origen metodológico, distintos estudios han observado la acumulación de la ciclina D1 en el citoplasma de células quiescentes o diferenciadas, sugiriendo la existencia de otros mecanismos que podrían regular la actividad de los complejos Cdk4ciclina D1 a nivel de su localización núcleocitoplasmática. Por otro lado, en nuestro laboratorio se había descrito un mecanismo de retención citoplasmática de Cln3, el homólogo funcional de ciclina D1 en levadura de gemación, que regula la entrada en ciclo y juega un papel muy importante en la coordinación entre crecimiento y proliferación. Estos antecedentes nos llevaron a plantear, como hipótesis de trabajo de esta tesis doctoral, la existencia de un mecanismo de control de localización de ciclina D1 entre el núcleo y el citoplasma, que podría tener un papel relevante en situaciones de detención de la proliferación celular. En este trabajo hemos demostrado que la ciclina D1 se localiza en el citoplasma de fibroblastos embrionarios de ratón quiescentes, y que además sucede por un mecanismo independiente del exporte por Crm1. De la búsqueda de interactores de ciclina D1 por dihíbrido y copurificación hemos identificado la transloquina, una proteína cuya implicación ya se había descrito en el proceso de importe nuclear de FGF2. Además, durante nuestro trabajo observamos que FGF2 es un potente estimulador de la acumulación nuclear de ciclina D1. La sobreexpresión de transloquina inhibe la acumulación nuclear de ciclina D1 en células proliferando. En cambio, la inhibición de la expresión de transloquina causa un efecto opuesto, induce la acumulación nuclear de ciclina D1 y la fosforilación de RB por Cdk4 en células sometidas a condiciones de quiescencia. En resumen, en este trabajo de tesis doctoral hemos identificado un mecanismo de retención citoplasmática de la ciclina D1 en fibroblastos embrionarios de ratón, donde la transloquina juega un papel importante para mantener el estado de quiescencia celular. La transloquina y Cdk4 se unen y compiten por el mismo dominio de ciclina D1, y puesto que la formación del complejo Cdk4ciclina D1 es un requisito previo para el importe nuclear, este hecho permite establecer una base molecular sencilla para el propio mecanismo de retención citoplasmática. / The cell cycle is the series of events by which the cell duplicates its contents and divides into two daughter cells identical genetically. This process is regulated by different external and internal signals allowing the cell to proliferate under suitable conditions. Higher eukaryotes control proliferation and growth in late G1 at the restriction point, where they ensure that enough appropriate nutrients and extracellular mitogens are present to enter a new cell cycle and initiate DNA replication. Dtype cyclins are a key target in the regulation of G1 phase. Mammalian cells contain genes encoding three highly homologous Dtype cyclins (D1, D2, D3) that associate in a tissue specific manner with either Cdk4 or Cdk6 to form an active protein kinase. Among them, cyclin D1 is the most studied because its overexpression is frequently present in human tumors. Mitogendriven upregulation of cyclin D1 levels and assembly into active complexes with Cdk4/6 are key events for exit from quiescence and G1 progression in mammalian cells. Quiescent cells are thought to inhibit cell cycle entry mainly by two different mechanisms: downregulation of Dtype cyclin expression and upregulation of KIP proteins to inhibit residual Cdk4/6cyclin D activity. However, cytoplasmic accumulation of cyclin D1 in quiescent or differentiated cells has been observed in different instances, suggesting the existence of other mechanisms to control the nucleocytoplasmic distribution of cyclin D1 as a function of growth signals. On the other hand, we have previously characterized a cytoplasmic retention device that sequesters Cln3, the functional homologue of Dtype cyclins in budding yeast, to regulate G1 progression and cell size homeostasis. Thus, as the initial hypothesis of this doctoral thesis, we asked whether mammalian cells control the nucleocytoplasmic distribution of cyclin D1 as a function of growth signals. In this doctoral thesis we show that cyclin D1 is localized in the cytoplasm in quiescent mouse fibroblasts by a mechanism that does not involve the Crm1 exportin. We have screened for cyclin D1 interactors by twohybrid and coimmunopurification strategies and we have identified translokin, a protein that interacts with FGF2 and facilitates its nuclear import. We have also observed that FGF2 treatment of quiescent cells causes nuclear accumulation of cyclin D1. Overexpression of translokin prevents proper cyclin D1 accumulation in the nucleus of proliferating cells. On the other hand, downregulation of translokin levels results in nuclear accumulation of cyclin D1 and causes Cdk4dependent phosphorylation of RB in quiescent cells. In summary, in the present doctoral thesis we show that cyclin D1 is also subject to an analogous but different cytoplasmic retention mechanism in quiescent mouse fibroblasts. We have identified translokin as an interactor of cyclin D1 that plays an essential role to inhibit its accumulation in the nucleus under quiescence conditions. As translokin interacts with cyclin D1 domains also needed for Cdk4 binding and subsequent nuclear import, we propose that translokin is an essential component of a cytoplasmic retention mechanism of cyclin D1 that prevents cell cycle entry during cellular quiescence.

The regenerative capacity of mature mammalian CNS neurons after axonal injury is severely limited by a variety of mechanisms. Retrograde repression is the continuous inhibition of the expression of growth phenotypes by tonic signals produced by target tissues and transmitted to the neuron cell body via retrograde axonal transport. Loss of target contact through axonal injury is thought to interrupt this retrograde signal and allow the up-regulation of growth-associated proteins. Most CNS neurons, however, possess many widespread axon collaterals, such that retrograde repression is maintained by intact sustaining collaterals even if some axons are injured.<p>In this project we investigated whether or not retrograde repression plays a role in limiting the expression of GAP-43 in transcallosal neurons. Because TCNs possess local axon collaterals to nearby cortex and project distal axons to homologous areas of contralateral cortex, we hypothesized that the simultaneous interruption of retrograde repressive signals from both ipsilateral and contralateral cortex would result in an up-regulation of GAP-43 expression in at least some TCNs.<p>We found that a bilateral infusion of a function blocking antibody to FGF-2 into the parietal cortex of rats using implanted osmotic mini-pumps resulted in a significant increase in the level of expression of GAP-43 mRNA in TCNs identified by retrograde fluorescent labeling. In contrast, neither ipsilateral or contralateral antibody infusions alone increased GAP-43 expression significantly compared to controls. The level of expression of GAP-43 in TCNs did not significantly increase after stereotactic callosotomy alone, but callosotomized animals treated with an ipsilateral infusion of anti-FGF-2 had levels of increased GAP-43 expression equivalent to those seen in animals that had received bilateral antibody infusions.<p>We conclude that FGF-2 provides a retrograde repressive signal for at least some mature mammalian TCNs, and that the expression of growth-associated proteins can be up-regulated in CNS neurons by simultaneously blocking retrograde repressive signals from all existing axon collaterals. The ability to alter the gene expression of mature CNS neurons in both normal and injured states through the targeted infusion of a pharmacological agent may have potential clinical implications in the future.

<p>Chemotherapy remains the only available treatment for triple-negative (TN) breast cancer. Although some TN breast cancers respond initially to neoadjuvant chemotherapy, the majority of patients die within three years of treatment due to recurrent tumor growth. Developing ex vivo models for TN breast cancer recurrence and defining responsible molecules will be crucial to developing effective combination therapies for TN breast cancer patients. We have developed an in vitro model of TN breast cancer dormancy/recurrence. Short-term exposure of tumor cells to chemotherapy at clinically relevant doses enriches for a dormant tumor cell population. Several days after removing chemotherapy, dormant tumor cells regain proliferative ability and establish colonies, resembling tumor recurrence. Tumor cells from "recurrent" colonies exhibit increased chemotherapy resistance, resembling therapy resistance of recurrent tumors in patients. Furthermore, we identify a novel signaling axis [nuclear bFGF/DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK)] supported by chemotherapy-enriched dormant TN breast cancer cells. This signaling axis drives accelerated DNA repair in chemo-residual TN breast cancer cells. Targeting this axis with either with a bFGF shRNA or DNA-PK small molecule inhibitor blocks recurrent colony formation. Using the Oncomine gene expression database, we found that bFGF expression in tumor samples from TN breast cancer patients predicts five year tumor recurrence following neoadjuvant chemotherapy treatment. Finally, we demonstrate that recurrent tumor cells exhibit increased invasiveness, reflecting the aggressive behavior of recurrent tumors in patients. Collectively, these studies identify a novel signaling axis in TN breast cancer that likely contributes to tumor recurrence and provide molecular targets for developing future therapeutics against TN breast cancer.</p> / Dissertation

Ce travail a été mené afin d’étudier l’effet du FGF 2 et du TGF-β1 sur les étapes précoces de la régénération dentinaire en utilisant la micro-encapsulation de ces facteurs dans une matrice pour les protéger et contrôler leur libération et ensuite l’application des microparticules obtenues en coiffage pulpaire direct dans un modèle de culture de dents entières. Ce travail consiste d’abord à l’optimisation des moyens techniques mis en oeuvre pour réaliser l'encapsulation du TGFβ1, FGF-2 à l'aide de l'acide poly (lactique-glycolique) PLGA. Les études de la caractérisation colloïdal et physico chimique des microparticules montre que les microparticules gardent leurs caractéristiques physicochimiques après séchage et resuspension dans l’eau. La procèdes optimisé a été ensuite utilisé pour encapsuler les facteurs de croissance. L’encapsulation de FGF-2 et TGF-β1 a été obtenue avec une taille, une efficacité d’encapsulation et une profile de libération adaptés au type d’application choisi. Les études biologiques ne montrent aucun effet toxique des particules sur les fibroblastes pulpaires. Les facteurs de croissance ont gardé leur activité biologique spécifique. Un modèle de culture de dent entier humain a été utilisé pour réaliser l’application de nos microparticules comme un matériau de coiffage dentaire pour confirmer leurs activités biologiques ex-vivo. Ces microparticules peuvent être utiles dans les études des étapes précoces de la régénération dentinaire, l'activation et la migration des cellules progénitrices de la pulpe dentaire / The purpose of this work was to investigate the effect of FGF 2 and TGF-β1 on the early steps of dentin regeneration using microencapsulation of theses factors into a microparticles matrix to ensure growth factors protection and to provide bioactive sustained release in contact with dental pulp cells and then the application of the obtained microparticles in direct pulp capping using a culture model of entire tooth. This work involves the optimization of technical means used to achieve encapsulation of TGFβ1, FGF-2 using the poly (lactic-glycolic acid) PLGA. Physicochemical and colloidal characterization of microspheres shows that the microparticles retain their physicochemical characteristics after drying and re-suspended in water. The double emulsion method was used to separately encapsulate (FGF-2) and (TGFβ1). Microparticles morphology, loading, shelf life, potential toxicity and release kinetics were studied. Then the proliferation of dental pulp cells was examined in contact with microparticles. Biological studies show no toxic effect of particles on pulp fibroblasts. Growth factors have kept their specific biological activity. A culture model of human entire tooth was used to achieve the application of microparticles as a dental direct capping material to confirm their biological activities ex vivo. These microparticles can be useful in studies of early steps of dentin regeneration, activation and migration of progenitor cells in dental pulp

Successful axon regeneration appears to depend on the development of an injury response. Dorsal root ganglion neurons exemplify the necessity of this injury response in a unique way. Peripheral nerve transection leads to development of an injury response and successful regeneration whereas central root transection does neither. The injury response may involve extracellular and intracellular pathways. To investigate the extraneuronal influences, we performed nerve transection of either the central or peripheral axon branches and studied the expression of GAP-43, a key growth associated protein, and the transcription factors ATF3, c-Jun, and STAT3. Our results show that the responses to peripheral versus central nerve transection are fundamentally different. Peripheral but not central nerve transection increases GAP-43, ATF3, and c-Jun expression. STAT3, however, is upregulated as a result of central but not peripheral nerve transection. To investigate potential intracellular signalling pathways, we applied FGF-2, an extracellular mitogen, or an analog of cAMP, an intracellular second messenger to the cut end of the peripheral axon. Our results indicate that FGF-2 and cAMP act as activators of GAP-43 expression. On the other hand, FGF-2 and cAMP act to downregulate the expression of ATF3. FGF-2 upregulates c-Jun and the activated form of STAT3. Paradoxically, the regulation of GAP-43 expression by cAMP or by FGF-2 in vivo shows opposing results from the previously reported in vitro studies. Our present results suggest that the peripheral nerve injury response may be governed by at least three different signalling pathways.

Successful axon regeneration appears to depend on the development of an injury response. Dorsal root ganglion neurons exemplify the necessity of this injury response in a unique way. Peripheral nerve transection leads to development of an injury response and successful regeneration whereas central root transection does neither. The injury response may involve extracellular and intracellular pathways. To investigate the extraneuronal influences, we performed nerve transection of either the central or peripheral axon branches and studied the expression of GAP-43, a key growth associated protein, and the transcription factors ATF3, c-Jun, and STAT3. Our results show that the responses to peripheral versus central nerve transection are fundamentally different. Peripheral but not central nerve transection increases GAP-43, ATF3, and c-Jun expression. STAT3, however, is upregulated as a result of central but not peripheral nerve transection. To investigate potential intracellular signalling pathways, we applied FGF-2, an extracellular mitogen, or an analog of cAMP, an intracellular second messenger to the cut end of the peripheral axon. Our results indicate that FGF-2 and cAMP act as activators of GAP-43 expression. On the other hand, FGF-2 and cAMP act to downregulate the expression of ATF3. FGF-2 upregulates c-Jun and the activated form of STAT3. Paradoxically, the regulation of GAP-43 expression by cAMP or by FGF-2 in vivo shows opposing results from the previously reported in vitro studies. Our present results suggest that the peripheral nerve injury response may be governed by at least three different signalling pathways.

Problems with musculoskeletal system, such as of developmental disorders, fractures or damage of the bone by age, inflammatory or tumor diseases, are still increasing in orthopaedics. Sometimes the bone tissue is not capable to completely regenerate to exert its physiological function in the organism. For this reason, using the bone replacements is necessary and common nowadays. Despite of an intensive research and testing of a wide range of the potential biomaterials and their combinations, the usage of metal materials for construction of the bone implants, still remains to be the gold standard. Ti-6Al-4V alloy is one of the commercialy used metal materials, which is known for the high mechanical and chemical resistance and a good biocompatibility. For a good biological response of the patient's organism for the bone implant, is an ability of osteointegration into the surrounding bone tissue, the key. This ability can be influenced in the case of the metals, by their surface structure. As it is known from earlier studies, the surface topography of the material is very important for the adhesion and proliferation of the bone cells, which are able to discriminate, very sensitively, between various stages of the material surface roughness. For this reason we have focused on studying of an influence...

Rupture of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) of the knee leads to chronic joint instability and reduced range of motion while the long term results are marred by a high prevalence of degenerative joint disease especially osteoarthritis. Bundles of collagen threads have been widely investigated for the repair of torn ACL, but are limited by insufficient tissue ingrowth to repopulate and completely regenerate these grafts. We have developed a novel in vitro method of characterizing fiber-based thread matrices by probing their ability to promote tissue ingrowth from a wound margin as a measure of their ability to promote repopulation and regeneration. This method is useful in the optimization of thread scaffolds, and is sensitive enough to distinguish between subtle variations in biopolymer chemistry and organization. Furthermore, this method was used to characterize the effects of crosslinking on the cell outgrowth and correlated the findings with the mechanical properties of collagen threads. The results suggest that crosslinking is required to achieve sufficient mechanical properties for high stress applications such as ACL replacement, but regardless of technique, crosslinking attenuated the cell outgrowth properties of the threads. To improve the regenerative capacity of these scaffolds, novel fibrin microthread matrices were developed with a similar morphology to collagen threads and sufficient mechanical strength to be incorporated in composite thread scaffold systems. These fibrin microthreads were loaded with FGF-2, a potent mitogen and chemotactic agent that works synergistically with fibrin in regulating cell signaling and gene expression. Increases in fibroblast migration and proliferation in FGF-2-loaded fibrin threads were successfully demonstrated with the concomitant promotion of oriented, aligned, spindle-like fibroblast morphology. These results suggest that fibrin-FGF-2 microthreads have distinct advantages as a biomaterial for the rapid regeneration of injured tissues such as the ACL.

<p>Formation of blood vessels occurs through two processes: vasculogenesis and angiogenesis, which are regulated by various growth factors such as vascular endothelial growth factor, fibroblast growth factor and platelet-derived growth factor. The present study was carried out in order to investigate the roles of the Shb and Cbl proteins in growth factor-mediated signal transduction and blood vessel formation. Shb was found to be involved in NGF-stimulated Rap1 signaling in PC12 cells by forming a complex with CrkII and a 130-135 kDa protein. The Rap1 signaling pathway contributed to NGF-dependent neurite outgrowth. In immortomouse brain endothelial (IBE) cells, Shb increased cell spreading, migration and cytoskeletal rearrangements. Such effects may partly be due to altered Rap1 activation in Shb overexpressing IBE cells. Shb was required for tubular morphogenesis in collagen gels in the presence of FGF-2. In embryoid bodies (EBs) derived from murine embryonic stem cells, Shb up-regulated both VEGFR2 and Tal1 expression at early stages of EB development and thus promoted blood vessel formation both in the absence and in the presence of growth factors. In IBE cells, Cbl positively regulated FGF-2 signaling and increased cell proliferation. Mutation of RING finger alone did not affect blood vessel formation in EBs. However, EBs overexpressing the oncogenic form Cbl 70Z, which had a deletion of the linker region and the first cysteine of the RING finger, exhibited intense CD31 positive sheet-like staining and blood vessel. The results suggested that Cbl had dual roles in endothelial cells: it promoted FGF-2-induced proliferation whereas down-regulated proliferation of endothelial progenitor cells.</p><p>The present work suggests that Shb and Cbl play a crucial role in cell differentiation and blood vessel formation.</p>

Formation of blood vessels occurs through two processes: vasculogenesis and angiogenesis, which are regulated by various growth factors such as vascular endothelial growth factor, fibroblast growth factor and platelet-derived growth factor. The present study was carried out in order to investigate the roles of the Shb and Cbl proteins in growth factor-mediated signal transduction and blood vessel formation. Shb was found to be involved in NGF-stimulated Rap1 signaling in PC12 cells by forming a complex with CrkII and a 130-135 kDa protein. The Rap1 signaling pathway contributed to NGF-dependent neurite outgrowth. In immortomouse brain endothelial (IBE) cells, Shb increased cell spreading, migration and cytoskeletal rearrangements. Such effects may partly be due to altered Rap1 activation in Shb overexpressing IBE cells. Shb was required for tubular morphogenesis in collagen gels in the presence of FGF-2. In embryoid bodies (EBs) derived from murine embryonic stem cells, Shb up-regulated both VEGFR2 and Tal1 expression at early stages of EB development and thus promoted blood vessel formation both in the absence and in the presence of growth factors. In IBE cells, Cbl positively regulated FGF-2 signaling and increased cell proliferation. Mutation of RING finger alone did not affect blood vessel formation in EBs. However, EBs overexpressing the oncogenic form Cbl 70Z, which had a deletion of the linker region and the first cysteine of the RING finger, exhibited intense CD31 positive sheet-like staining and blood vessel. The results suggested that Cbl had dual roles in endothelial cells: it promoted FGF-2-induced proliferation whereas down-regulated proliferation of endothelial progenitor cells. The present work suggests that Shb and Cbl play a crucial role in cell differentiation and blood vessel formation.