Les écosystèmes forestiers naturels du Sud-Ouest de l’océan Indien (SOOI) sont fortement impactés par la déforestation et font face à de nombreuses invasions biologiques pouvant altérer leur processus, en particulier les interactions de type plantes-pollinisateur. C’est dans ce contexte que s’inscrit cette thèse, décrivant les relations entre un pollinisateur généraliste indigène : Apis mellifera unicolor et la flore de deux écosystèmes de Ranomafana : RA et de Mare Longue : ML. La description palynologique de 135 espèces issues de 52 familles de plantes mellifères de la formation de RA, a fait ressortir les caractères spécifiques des pollens liés à une pollinisation entomophile. Dans un second temps, des suivis phénologiques mensuels de 131 espèces (90% d’indigènes) à RA et 120 espèces (53% d’exotiques) à ML ont permis d’identifier et d’estimer les ressources florales disponibles. Pendant un an, l’analyse mensuelle des miels et pollens collectés a permis de dresser l’inventaire des ressources florales réellement exploitées. Les espèces indigènes ont été significativement plus butinées que les espèces exotiques, malgré une diversité de ressources exotiques supérieures à celles des indigènes (ML). Le comportement de butinage de l’abeille sur le genre Weinmannia a été analysé sur la base de 104 h de vidéo (W. bojeriana et W. rutenbergii à Madagascar, et W. tinctoria à La Réunion). Les fleurs ont été visitées par un cortège de pollinisateurs potentiels : coléoptères, diptères, lépidoptères et autres hyménoptères. A. m. unicolor était le visiteur le plus fréquent à Madagascar. L’ensemble de ces résultats a permis de confirmer le comportement généraliste d’A. m. unicolor, avec toutefois une préférence forte et significative pour les espèces florales indigènes des strates arborées et arbustives et permet d’émettre des hypothèses sur la complexité des interactions entre l’abeille et les écosystèmes du hotspot de biodiversité SOOI. / The natural forest ecosystems of the Southwest Indian Ocean (SOOI) have been strongly impacted by deforestation and face many biological invasions that are alter their balance, particularly plant-pollinator interactions. It is in this context that this thesis is set, describing the relations between an indigenous general pollinator: Apis mellifera unicolor and the flora of two ecosystems of Madagascar (Ranomafana: RA) and Reunion (Mare Longue: ML). The palynological description of 135 species from 52 families of melliferous plants from the RA formation, highlighted the specific criteria of pollens associated with entomophilous pollination. In a second time, monthly phenological monitoring of 131 species (90% native) to RA and 120 species (53% exotic) to ML allowed to identify and estimate the available floral resources. During one year, the monthly analysis of honeys and pollen collected enabled an inventory of the floral resources actually exploited. Native species were significantly more visited than exotic species, despite a diversity of exotic resources superior to that of the natives (ML). The foraging behaviour of the honeybee on the genus Weinmannia was analysed on the basis of 104 hours of video (W. bojeriana and W. rutenbergii in Madagascar, and W. tinctoria in Reunion Island). The flowers were visited by many potential pollinators: Coleoptera, Diptera, Lepidoptera and other Hymenoptera. A. m. unicolor was the most frequent visitor to the two species from Madagascar. The results confirmed the generalist behaviour of A. m. unicolor, with, however, a strong and significant preference for native floral species of tree and shrub strata and makes it possible to speculate on the important place of this bee in the ecosystems of the SOOI biodiversity hotspot.

Le comportement de recherche alimentaire varie tout au long de la vie des oiseaux marins selon divers facteurs qui peuvent être liés au cycle de vie ou à l’habitat. Cependant, aucune étude n’avait auparavant abordé ces différents facteurs de variation chez une seule et même espèce. L’objectif de cette thèse était de distinguer la part fixe du comportement de recherche alimentaire de ses différents degrés de plasticité chez un oiseau marin pantropical, le fou à pieds rouges (Sula sula). Pour cela, des adultes et des juvéniles issus de différentes colonies ont été équipés de balises GPS afin d’étudier leurs trajets selon différents facteurs de variation intrinsèques (âge et stade de reproduction) et extrinsèques (forçages physiques, productivité primaire, compétition pour la ressource). Le comportement de recherche alimentaire des adultes variait de façon importante au sein d’une même colonie selon le stade de reproduction. Les trajets étaient plus courts pendant l'élevage du poussin, connu pour être particulièrement contraignant d’un point de vue énergétique, et plus longs pendant l’incubation et la période post-envol. Le suivi pluriannuel d’une des colonies a pu mettre en évidence la flexibilité du comportement lors de conditions environnementales défavorables. Des trajets plus longs étaient observés lors de la saison de reproduction qui présentait une diminution de la productivité et de l’activité tourbillonnaire locale. Une importante plasticité du comportement en fonction de l’habitat a pu être mise en évidence à l’échelle de l’aire de répartition de l’espèce. La durée et le rayon de prospection des trajets des adultes variaient considérablement selon les colonies, allant de trajets strictement diurnes à des trajets beaucoup plus longs qui incluaient plusieurs nuits passées en mer. Les fous à pieds rouges ne semblaient pas cibler des zones particulièrement productives et la compétition intra- et interspécifique semblait expliquer en partie les différences observées entre les colonies. En revanche, tous les trajets possédaient généralement une structure similaire et augmentaient leur effort de recherche alimentaire en adoptant un comportement de recherche en zone restreinte (ARS). Le comportement des juvéniles, encore nourris par leurs parents après leur envol pendant une longue période de transition, a pu être décrit pour la première fois. Avec le temps, les juvéniles augmentaient le rayon de prospection de leurs trajets, qui restait considérablement inférieur à celui des adultes. Des associations en mer avec d’autres juvéniles étaient fréquemment identifiées. Cette longue période d’apprentissage semble permettre l’acquisition progressive de compétences complexes nécessaires à la recherche et à la capture de leurs proies. Si la plasticité comportementale des individus tend généralement à amortir les effets des conditions défavorables sur l'état de santé moyen d’une population, cette flexibilité est tout de même limitée. Dans le contexte actuel de changement global, l’évaluation de la plasticité comportementale s’avère alors nécessaire afin de mieux prévoir les conséquences de ces changements sur les populations. / Seabird foraging behaviour varies through time according to factors that may be related to life cycle stage and/or habitat. However, no study has previously investigated variation in these different factors and how they impact foraging behaviour in a single species simultaneously. The aim of this thesis was to distinguish the fixed part of foraging behaviour from its different degrees of plasticity in a pantropical seabird, the Red-footed booby (Sula sula). Adults and juveniles from different colonies were equipped with GPS tags to track their foraging trips according to several intrinsic (age and breeding stage) and extrinsic factors (physical forcing, primary productivity and competition for resources). Adult foraging behaviour varied significantly within the same colony according to breeding stage. Tracks were shorter during brooding, which is known to be a particularly energy-constraining time period, and longer during incubation and fledging. Multi-year monitoring at one of the colonies revealed flexibility in behaviour under adverse environmental conditions. Longer tracks were observed during breeding seasons with decreased productivity and eddy activity. High plasticity in foraging behaviour according to habitat was observed across the range of the species. The length and range of adult trips varied considerably among colonies, ranging from strictly diurnal to longer trips that included several nights spent at sea. Red-footed boobies did not appear to target particularly productive areas, and intra- and interspecific competition seemed to explain partly the differences observed between colonies. On the other hand, all the individuals showed similar trip structuring and increased searching effort by adopting area-restricted search (ARS) behaviours. The behaviour of juveniles, still fed by their parents after fledging during a long transition period, was described for the first time. Over time, juveniles increased trip ranges, which were considerably lower than that of adults. Associations at sea with other juveniles were frequently identified. This long learning period seems to be an adaptation allowing the gradual acquisition of the skills necessary for the search and capture of prey. While the behavioural plasticity of individuals tends to cushion the effects of unfavourable conditions at the population scale, this flexibility is still limited. In the current context of global change, assessment of behavioural plasticity is necessary in order to better predict the consequences of these changes on populations.

Widespread anthropogenic invasions have prompted concerns that naturalized organisms could threaten biodiversity. In particular, invasive weeds can negatively affect native biota through a variety of means, including disrupting mutualisms. This thesis was designed to observe and test dispersal mutualisms in a native forest during autumn when the majority of plant species are fruiting. In this thesis I examined whether the invasive plant barberry (Berberis glaucocarpa) was influencing the behaviour of a native frugivore bellbird (Anthornis melanura) and a range of dispersal related services in a native forest, Kowhai Bush near Kaikoura. To test these 18 banded bellbirds were followed through autumn 2011. These observe bellbirds were split between control and test bird. Barberry fruit was removed from the test bird territories. I recorded whether bellbirds changed their territory sizes, foraging and daily behaviours. During 52 hours of observations, bellbirds were never observed feeding on barberry fruit. No significant changes to bellbird behaviour or territories were observed after the removal of barberry fruit. Bellbird diet overall was dominated by invertebrates (83% of foraging observations), with smaller contributions from fruit (16%, nearly all on Coprosma robusta), nectar and honeydew. Since bellbirds did not eat barberry fruit, removal of this weed is unlikely to negatively affect bellbirds during autumn. Which other bird species were dispersing barberry was recorded. I recorded 242 hours of videotape footage on 24 fruiting plants. A total of 101 foraging events were recorded of 4 different bird species: silvereyes (Zosterops lateralis) 42 visits, blackbirds (Turdus merula) 27 visits, song thrush (Turdus philomelos) 29, and starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) 3 visits. The species differed in the mean length of time they spent in plants, so the overall contribution to barberry fruit removal was 32.6% silvereyes, 24.3% blackbirds, 42.9% song thrush and 0.1% starlings. To find out the relative contribution of exotic and native birds to dispersal of fruits in Kowhai Bush, I mist-netted 221 birds of 10 species and identified any seeds in the 183 faeces they deposited. A total of 21 plant species were observed fruiting in Kowhai Bush during this time. A total of 11 different plant species were identified from 1092 seeds. Birds were further observed feeding on 3 other plant species which were not observed in faecal samples. This left 7 plants with unobserved dispersal vectors. There were likely four main dispersers, bellbirds, silvereyes, song thrush and blackbirds and five minor, brown creeper (Mohoua novaeseelandiae), tui (Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae), fantails (Rhipidura fuliginosa), dunnock (Prunella modularis) and starlings. However there was considerable variability between these bird species dispersal abilities. Introduced birds’ song thrush and blackbirds were observed dispersing naturalized plant seeds at higher than expected rates in comparison to native frugivores bellbirds and silvereyes. I also measured the gape sizes on mist netted birds and on samples of fruit from Kowhai Bush. Both silvereyes and bellbirds were found to be eating fruit larger than their gape, but despite this two native (Hedycarya arborea and Ripogonum scandens) and three exotic plants (Vitis vinifera, Taxus baccata and Crataegus monogyna) had large fruit that were probably mainly dispersed by song thrush and blackbirds. Hence, introduced birds were important seed dispersers for large fleshy fruited seeds in Kowhai Bush. Demonstrating that interactions among native and exotic flesh fruited plants and frugivores is important within forest communities.

L'objectif principal de cette thèse est d'étudier comment la sélection naturelle façonne les traits d'histoire de vie et le comportement des animaux en fonction de l'environnement écologique dans lequel ils évoluent. Ce cadre théorique soulève des hypothèses spécifiques concernant les processus de reproduction, de dispersion et d'approvisionnement chez le parasitoïde Ibalia leucospoides. Les expériences d'écologie comportementale et d'écophysiologie menées sur des parasitoïdes femelles d' Ibalia leucospoides démontrent principalement que (1) la proportion d'oeufs matures que possède la femelle à l'émergence est élevée par rapport à sa fécondité potentielle : I. Leucospoides adopte une stratégie proovigénique ; (2) l'alimentation a un effet négligeable sur les femelles adultes : elle n'influence ni la maturation des oeufs, ni la survie, ni les capacités de vol ; (3) dans nos conditions expérimentales, la capacité de vol dépend des caractéristiques morphologiques du parasitoïde (taille et charge alaire) ; et (4) concernant la recherche d'hôtes, les femelles sont capables de discerner des différences dans la qualité des patchs d'hôtes à distance, sans les échantillonner. D'autre part, le temps d'exploitation d'un patch dépend des informations obtenues des patchs voisins. Le succès reproductif du parasitoïde proovigénique Ibalia leucospoides, n'est pas limité par le manque de nourriture chez l'adulte. La stratégie d'allocation des ressources entre les différentes fonctions biologiques, ainsi que le comportement d'approvisionnement adopté par cette espèce de parasitoïde pourraient vraisemblablement être une réponse aux caractéristiques de l'habitat, telle que la distribution fortement agrégée des Sirex noctilio, l'hôte, ainsi que la disponibilité des ressources (i.e. hôtes et nourriture) / The central aim of this thesis is to explore how natural selection shapes life history traits and behaviuors according to the ecological environment in which an animal exists. This overall framework leads to specific hypotheses concerning the reproductive, dispersal and foraging processes in the parasitoid Ibalia leucospoides. The experiments in behavioural ecology and eco-physiology in female parasitoids of Ibalia leucospoides show as main results, that (1) the proportion of the potential lifetime eggs complement that is mature at female emergence is high; (2) low dependency on adult female feeding, not only for egg maturation but also for survival and flight; (3) under our experimental conditions flight capacity depends on the morphological characteristics of the parasitoid (size and wing loading); and (4) regarding host foraging, females accurately assess differences in host patch quality from a distance without the need of displaying a sampling process; in addition that patch exploitation times depend on the information obtained from the surrounding patches. The reproductive success of I. leucospoides, a proovigenic parasitoid, is not constrained by adult food deprivation. Both the resource allocation strategy toward the different biological functions and the foraging behaviour adopted by this parasitoid species may well be in respond to habitat characteristics, such as a strongly aggregated distribution of Sirex noctilio, the host, as well as to the resources availability (i.e. host and food)

Bumble bees (Bombus spp.: Apidae) are valuable pollinators of many crop and wildflower species. However, in some situations their potential is limited. Evaluation of, and management to improve bumble bee efficacy should include spatial information which is currently limited. Distance and direction determine the success of gene flow via pollen cross-over within and between plant populations at several scales. Studies of movement by bumble bees at large scales in semi-natural and intensively managed habitats are scarce. Few studies of bumble bee dispersal from the nest exist, particularly in relation to crops. At a small scale, directional rather than random movement between flowers has benefits for pollen flow. Results to date of directionality studies at small scales and their interpretation are inconsistent. The purpose of this thesis was to assess distances and directions moved by foraging bumble bees at a range of scales in two contrasting farm habitats in order to predict their pollination potential. A novel method was developed to mark automatically all the occupants of nests of bumble bees B. terrestris (L.) placed around a Lucerne seed crop Medicago sativa L. in New Zealand. Reobservation data from eight nests showed that of bumble bees which foraged within the crop, 81 % travelled ≤ 50 m and 56% ≤ 20 m from their nest. Results should be interpreted with extreme caution because fewer than 1 % of bumble bees marked at nests were reobserved in the crop. Because it was not established where the other 99% of the bumble bees went, foraging areas for nests could not be calculated as anticipated. Theories to explain the non-specificity of bumble bees to the crop include; resource depletion near nests, competition with honey bees in the crop, or an evolved strategy to disperse in order to minimise nest predation. Lucerne flowers contained a significantly lower concentration of sugar in nectar, and significantly fewer pollen grains than did those of purple loosestrife Lythrum salicaria L., a species on which bumble bees appeared to forage in preference Lucerne. The higher rewards offered by L. salicaria may have diverted bumble bees from the less-rewarding Lucerne crop. In a Norwegian meadow system, all foraging bouts by bumble bees B. lucorum (L.) within a patch of wood cranesbill flowers Geranium sylvaticum L. were random with respect to direction. This result is not consistent with predictions, based on optimal foraging theory, that movement should be directional to enable optimal pollen flow, and to avoid revisitation of just-emptied flowers by the pollinator. A medium-scale study of several bumble bee species moving between patches of northern wolfsbane Aconitum septentrionale Koelle in Norway revealed considerable loyalty by bumble bees to patches in which they were marked. In a different landscape-scale study (over 5 ha), several bumble bees exhibited a high degree of loyalty to areas in which they were marked (87% were reobserved ≤ 50 m from marking points). These restricted movement patterns are discussed in terms of potential pollen flow. Of 260 bumble bees marked, only five were recorded crossing between meadows, which could be a result of innate loyalty to small forage areas, an artefact of the sampling technique used, or forest boundaries acting as physical impediments to movement. In the future, spatial data of the type collected in this thesis will aid in the management of bumble bee populations to achieve both commercial and conservation goals. Spatial data can be applied to predict the optimal placement of artificially-reared nests, predict suitable isolation distances for pure seed crops, and aid in the positioning of supplementary forage sources and nest-site refuges.

L’abeille domestique (Apismellifera) a un rôle majeur dans les écosystèmes naturels et agronomiques mais est exposée à un nombre croissant de pressions environnementales (nouveaux parasites, xénobiotiques, variations climatiques et malnutrition). Dans ce contexte, la compréhension des phénomènes impliqués dans les réponses au stress ainsi que leurs coûts associés devient cruciale pour mieux appréhender l’impact de ces pressions sur les abeilles. L’émergence d’un stress perturbe généralement l’homéostasie de l’organisme qui doit mettre en place une cascade d’adaptations physiologiques et comportementales pour le surmonter. Cependant, du fait de son mode de vie social, il est raisonnable de penser que les réponses vont se faire dans l’intérêt du groupe et non plus seulement dans l’intérêt de l’individu. Afin de caractériser les réponses au stress et de déterminer leur spécificité en fonction de la nature du stimulus (xénobiotiques, immunitaire, thermique, social), j’ai adopté une approche multidisciplinaire en ciblant l’identification des modifications i) physiologiques associées à la division du travail, ii) du métabolisme énergétique, et iii) comportementales. J’ai démontré quequelque soit leur rôle social (nourrice, gardienne, butineuse), les abeilles répondent de la même manière à un stress donné, si celui-­ci est écologiquement pertinent (hyperthermie et stress immunitaire mais pas xénobiotique). Une tendance à la diminution des ressources énergétiques a également été observée suite à un stress suggérant une modification des performances comportementales. Afin de vérifier cela, je me suis concentrée sur l’activité de butinage; le vol chez les insectes étant un des processus physiologiques les plus coûteux du règne animal. Une altération des performances de butinage a été mise en évidence chez les abeilles soumises à un stress immunitaire avec une réorientation des préférences de butinage au dépens du pollen, plus coûteux àc ollecter et moins riche en ressource énergétique que le nectar ; ceci probablement pour pallier au coût énergétique du stress. En revanche, en réponse àune hyperthermie, une augmentation de l’activité de butinage a été observée mais sans engendrer un coût supplémentaire au niveau des ressources collectées.Ces résultats sont discutés à la lumière du coût énergétique du stress et des conséquences potentielles sur les performances des abeilles, qui infine pourrait perturber l’homéostasie énergétique de la colonie. / Honeybees (Apis mellifera), which play an important role in natural and agronomic ecosystems, are exposed to a growing number of environmental pressures(new parasites, pesticides, climatechangeand poor nutrition). In this context, deciphering the mechanisms underlying stress responses and their costs becomes crucial to better understand theim pact of these pressures. Stress usually represents a challenge to the homeostasis of a norganism. In response, a cascade of physiological and behavioural adaptations enables the organism to cope with the stress. However, dueto their sociallife style, we could suggest that stress response in honeybees will occurin the interest of the colony and not only in the interest of the individual. To characterise the stress response and determine its specificity according to the stimulus (xenobiotic, immune, thermal, social), I developed a multidisciplinary approach to identify changes in i) task-­related physiology, ii) energetic metabolism, and iii) behaviour. I demonstrated that, regardless of their social function (nurse, guard, forager), bees respond in the sameway to a given stress, if itis ecologically-­relevant (heat and immune stress but not pesticides). Atendencytoward decreas ingenergetic resources was also observed following stress exposure, which suggests changes in behavioural performance.In order to test this hypothesis, I analysed changes in foraging activity in response to stress, as insect flight is one of the most costly physiological processes in the animal kingdom. I found that for aging performances were affected by animmune stress : bees changed their foraging preferences at the expense of pollen, probably to reduce the stress energetic cost, given that pollen is more costly to collect and provides alower energetic return than nectar. In contrast, in response to heat stress, an increase in colony for aging activity was observed, without an additional cost on resource collection. These results are discussed in the light of stress energetic cost and its potential consequences onhoneybee performances, which could disrupt the colony’s energetic homeostasis.

L’océan austral est un écosystème fragile dont la dynamique est influencée par des variations climatiques qui vont structurer la distribution spatio-temporelle des ressources. L’objectif de cette thèse était d’étudier les stratégies d’acquisition des ressources en proies mises en place par l’éléphant de mer austral face aux contraintes énergétiques (coûts du transport et coûts d’accès à la ressource) et temporelles (temps passé au fond d’une plongée et limite de plongée aérobie) auxquelles il est soumis. L’utilisation d’un ensemble d’enregistreurs de données déployés sur ces animaux a permis de reconstruire en trois dimensions leur plongée, mais également de calculer leur effort de nage, le nombre de proies rencontrées ainsi que leur dépense énergétique. Notre étude montre qu’à l’échelle d’une plongée, les éléphants de mer adaptent leur trajectoire, mais également le temps qu’ils passent au fond, en fonction du nombre de proies rencontrées. Pour des densités locales de proie importantes, ils passent plus de temps au fond, et concentrent leur recherche en zone restreinte, caractérisée par une diminution de la vitesse et une augmentation de la sinuosité horizontale. Au-delà de 550 m, le coût d’accès aux ressources devient supérieur aux coûts d’acquisition ; ils doivent alors faire face à un compromis entre l’accessibilité et la disponibilité en proies. À mesure qu’ils s’alimentent, ces phoques augmentent leur flottabilité, diminuant de surcroît leur dépense énergétique. Cette étude démontre également une structuration spatio-temporelle de cette dépense énergétique qui semble être liée au succès d’alimentation et donc à la distribution des ressources en proies. / The Southern Ocean is a fragile ecosystem whose dynamics are influenced by climate change that will structure the spatio-temporal distribution of resources. The objective of this PhD was to investigate the foraging strategies used by the southern elephant seal, under energetic (cost of transport and costs of access to the resource) and temporal (time at the bottom of a dive and aerobic dive limit) constraints. Using a set of animal-borne data loggers allowed us to reconstruct their three-dimensional path underwater, but also to calculate their swimming effort, the number of prey encountered and their energy expenditure. At the dive level, our study shows that elephant seals adapt their path, but also the time spent at the bottom, depending on the number of prey encountered. For high local prey density, they spent more time at the bottom, and concentrated their foraging effort in areas restricted search, characterized by a decrease in speed and an increase in horizontal sinuosity. Beyond 550 m, the cost of access to resources becomes greater than the cost of acquisition ; they must therefore deal with a trade-off between prey accessibility and availability. While feeding, these seals increase their buoyancy, reducing furthermore their energy expenditure. This study also shows a spatio-temporal structure of the energy expenditure that appears to be related to feeding success and therefore to prey resources distribution.

Bank voles, grey-sided voles, and field voles had synchronous 3-4 year density cycles with variable amplitudes which averaged about 200-fold in each species. Cycles of vole predators (red fox and Tengmalm's owl), and their (foxes') alternative prey (mountain hare and forest grouse) lagged behind the vole cycles. The nomadic Tengmalm's owl responded with a very rapid and strong numerical increase to the initial cyclic summer increase of voles (the owl’s staple food). Owl breeding densities in the springs were highly correlated with vole supply in the previous autumns. This suggested that the number of breeding owls was largely determined in the autumn at the time of the owl's nomadic migrations, and that immigration was crucial for the rapid rise in owl numbers. The owl's numerical response was reinforced by the laying of earlier and larger clutches when food was plentiful. In addition, the owl has an early maturation at one year of age. The transition between subsequent vole cycles was characterized by a distinct shift in rate of change in numbers from low to high or markedly higher values in both summer and winter. Regulation increased progressively throughout the cycle since the rate of change decreased continuously in the summers. Moreover, there was a similar decrease of the rate of change in winter. Rate of change was delayed density-dependent. The delayed density-dependence had an 8 month time-lag in the summers and a 4 month time-lag in the winters relative to the density in previous autumns and springs, respectively. These findings suggest that vole cycles are likely to be generated by a time-lag mechanism. On theoretical grounds, it has been found that a delayed density- dependence of population growth rate with a 9 month time-lag caused stable limit cycles with a period between 3 and 4 years. Some mechanisms for the delayed density-dependence are suggested and discussed. The mechanisms are assumed to be related to remaining effects of vole populations past interactions with predators, food supplies, and/or diseases. Unlike the other voles, the bank vole had regular and distinct seasonal declines in density over winter. These declines are proposed to be due to predation, mainly by Tengmalm's owl. Supranivean foraging for epiphytic tree lichens and conifer seeds most likely explains why this species was frequently taken by the owl under snow-rich conditions. The alternative prey hypothesis predicts that a reduction of predator numbers should increase the number of alternative prey. Alternative prey should be less effectively synchronized to the vole cycle by predation at declining and low vole (main prey) densities; they may also lose their 3-4 year cyclicity. The appearance of sarcoptic mange among foxes in northern Sweden in the mid 1970s provided an opportunity to "test" these ideas, and these were found to be supported. In areas with highest mange infection rates, foxes declined markedly from the late 1970s to mid 1980s, whereas hare numbers rose rapidly and appeared non-cyclic. / <p>Diss. (sammanfattning) Umeå : Umeå universitet, 1991, härtill 7 uppsatser</p> / digitalisering@umu

La dynamique océanique, notamment dans les régions Australes, se caractérise par d'importantes fluctuations induites par les processus à mésoéchelle (tourbillons, 100-200km) et à sous-mésoéchelle (filaments, <50km). Ces processus sont connus pour stimuler fortement le développement du phytoplancton et avec lui l'ensemble de la chaine trophique. Toutefois les relations entre la distribution des proies et celle des prédateurs sont encore loin d'être bien connues pour la plupart des espèces marines. C'est en particulier le cas pour l'éléphant de mer austral (EDM) dont les proies souvent localisées à grandes profondeurs. Cette thèse s’est intéressée à étudier comment le comportement de plongée et de chasse des EDM est influencé par les variations à fine échelle de l'environnement. Une des originalités de cette thèse a été d’utiliser les mesures à très haute résolution récoltées par les éléphants de mer qui constituent un jeu de données 3-D in-situ unique à sous-mésoéchelle, puis de les combiner aux mesures satellites plus classiques de température et d'altimétrie. Ce travail a montré, pour la première fois à l’aide de données in-situ très haute résolution, l’importance des zones frontales à sous-mésoéchelle dans le comportement alimentaire d’un prédateur supérieur. De plus, elle a permis le développement d’une méthode originale d’identification des zones frontales à fine échelle et confirmé la pertinence de la méthode Quasi-Géostrophique de Surface (SQG) dans l’étude de la dynamique fine échelle, notamment dans les perspectives des futures missions spatiales à hautes résolutions (de type SWOT). / Ocean dynamics, especially in the southern ocean, are caracterized by strong fluctuation due to mesoscale (eddies, 100-200km) and submesoscale (filaments, <50km) processes. Theses processes are known to strongly stimulate primary production and with him the rest of the trophic chain. However, in marine ecosystems, relationship between prey and predator distribution remain challenging to understand. Such complexe link exist within the Southern Elephant Seal (SES) and their deep diving prey.This PhD worked to understand how the SES diving and foraging behaviour is impacted by submesoscale variation of the environment. Two original aspects of this work was first to use the very high resolution measurement from SES as an unique 3-D in-situ submesoscale dataset and then to combine it to, more classic, satellite temperature and altimetry measurement. This work showed, for the first time the in-situ impact of submesoscale frontal regions on one top predator foraging behaviour. Furthermore, during this study, an original method to identify fine scale frontal regions was developped. Finally, this PhD confirm the relevant use of the Surface Quasi-Geostrophic method in the study of fine scale dynamics, especially in the possibility of high resolution spatial missions (such as SWOT).

In this thesis, experiments were conducted in the laboratory and the field to determine whether the provision of floral resources to hoverflies could enhance the biological control of aphids. The overall aim was to clarify hoverfly behaviour and ecology in an agroecosystem in order to understand the potential of these insects for biocontrol under a conservation biological control (CBC) regime. A preliminary experiment in New Zealand compared the effect of different coloured water-traps on catches of the hoverflies Melanostoma fasciatum (Macquart) and Melangyna novaezelandiae (Macquart). Significantly more individuals were caught in completely yellow traps than in traps with green outer walls and yellow inner walls or in completely green traps. This suggested that if a measure of hoverfly numbers relating to a particular distance along a transect is required, consideration should be given to the ability of hoverflies to detect yellow traps from a distance. The use of traps that are green outside would more accurately reflect the local abundance of hoverflies, as the insect would be likely to see the yellow stimulus only when above or close to the trap. Also, the addition of rose water significantly increased the number of M. fasciatum caught. From a suite of flowering plants chosen for their ability in other studies to increase hoverfly visit frequencies, laboratory experiments were conducted in France to determine the plant’s effectiveness at enhancing Episyrphus balteatus (De Geer) ‘fitness’, and to evaluate whether adult feeding on flowers was related to performance. Phacelia (Phacelia tanacetifolia Bentham cv. Balo), followed by buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench cv. Katowase) and coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) gave the optimal reproductive potential of female E. balteatus. There was no correlation between pollen and nectar consumption, and there was no discernible positive correlation between the quantity of pollen ingested and the resulting female performance. Phacelia and buckwheat were then studied as resource subsidies in the field in New Zealand. The effect of incorporating phacelia or buckwheat in the margins of 5 m x 5 m broccoli plots was tested for hoverfly activity and floral ‘preferences’. Hoverflies which had fed on phacelia and buckwheat pollen were found up to 17.5 m from the floral strips and females of M. fasciatum and M. novaezelandiae consumed more phacelia pollen than that of buckwheat in the field. These results support the choice of phacelia as an ideal floral resource subsidy in crops for enhanced biological control by these New Zealand species. The need for studying hoverfly movement in a large-scale field experiment was apparent from the field studies, so the next experiment was carried out in a field 450 × 270 m and flies were marked via their ingestion of the pollen of phacelia. The focus was on the proportion of flies having consumed the pollen. Although large quantities of pollen were found in some hoverfly guts, most did not contain phacelia pollen and very few were captured at 50 m from phacelia, compared with numbers at the border of the floral strip. A possible explanation was that hoverflies feed on a large variety of pollen species, reducing the relative attraction of phacelia flowers. Another possibility was that hoverflies dispersed from the phacelia away from the crop. Also, pollen digestion rates are likely to be a factor. Finally, a series of experiments was conducted in the field and laboratory to study hoverfly efficacy through oviposition and larval behaviour. In field experiments, female M. fasciatum and M. novaezelandiae laid more eggs where buckwheat patches were larger; however higher oviposition rates did not lead to improved aphid population suppression. In greenhouse experiments, larvae of E. balteatus could initiate a decline in aphid numbers at the predator: prey ratio 1: 8.3, however this control did not persist. Experiments in the laboratory showed that hoverfly larvae became more active and left the system while aphid numbers declined or numbers of larvae increased. This behaviour was caused by two factors: hunger and avoidance of conspecific larvae. Further experiments showed that the avoidance of conspecifics was caused by mutual interference rather than cannibalism. The results of this work highlight the importance of hoverfly dispersal ability. Given the observations of foraging behaviour of females and mutual interference observed between larvae, and the lack of success in CBC by hoverflies in experiments at the crop scale, it is essential to assess the impact of insect predators and parasitoids at a landscape scale.