軟體專案承諾升級現象發生時，可能會造成更多資源成本的投入，若投入更多的資源，而專案依然失敗，則會造成更多的浪費，是企業界最不希望看到的情形。本研究利用推敲可能性理論探討此現象，了解不同的說服方式如何影響受測者的決策過程。根據遇到專案的狀況，依照訊息訴求分成理性訴求與感性訴求的敘述方式，加入框架效應 (正向／負向) 以及訊息強度 (低／中／高) 兩變數，以自我責任作為調節變項進行探討，研究在不同情況敘述下，決策制定者接收專案訊息描述後其決策過程中的推敲可能性，以及推敲可能性與決策之間的關係。 研究發現如下： 1. 單一效果影響下，訊息強度中比起其他兩個強度較容易引起訊息接收者運用中央路徑思考。 2. 訊息訴求、訊息框架以及訊息強度會交互影響受測者推敲可能性，在正向框架下，訊息訴求與訊息強度對訊息接收者運用中央路徑做決策有顯著的交互作用。 3. 在訊息強度中與強的情況下訊息訴求與訊息框架對訊息接收者運用中央路徑做決策有顯著的交互作用。 4. 在感性訴求、正向框架與訊息強度強的訊息描述下，訊息接收者運用中央路徑思考時，較不容易做出承諾升級的決定。 5. 在自我責任調節下，則是感性訴求、負向框架與訊息強度弱的訊息描述，會引起訊息接收者運用中央路徑思考時，較不容易做出專案繼續的決策。 / Escalation of commitment is common in software project development. There are a few theories that have been used to explain this behavior, including the framing effect and self-responsibility. This study investigates the issue from the dual-path elaboration likelihood model (ELM) to examine how different persuasion routes may play roles in the decision process. An experiment was designed to study the effect of different descriptions of project status that may lead to different decision routes (central versus peripheral routes). The experiment design includes message appealing (rational vs emotional appealing), message strength (strong, medium and weak), and framing (positive vs. negative) as main variables and the responsibility as a moderator. The subject was asked to decide whether s/he would continue the project under a given scenario. Our results includes the following: 1. Message appealing, message framing, and message strength have significant interaction effect on the subject’s decision routes; 2. In positive framing, message appealing and strength has significant interaction effect on the use of the central route; 3. When message strength is medium or strong, message appealing and framing has significant interaction effect on the use of the central route; 4. Regarding to decision escalation, the likelihood of escalation is lower when the decision route is central (thinking) under the emotional appealing, positive framing, and strong message; 5. The likelihood of escalation is lower when the decision route is central under the emotional appealing, negative framing, and weak message description.

Abstract There is a broad consensus in the software engineering (SE) research community that understanding system desiderata and design creativity is critical for the success of software projects. This has motivated a plethora of research in SE to improve requirements engineering (RE) processes. However, little research has investigated the relationship between the way desiderata are presented (i.e., framed) and creative design performance. This dissertation, therefore, examines the effects of more formal presentations of desiderata on design creativity. The research was conducted in three phases. The first consisted of summarizing the available literature on cognitive biases in SE to build a comprehensive body of knowledge, understand the current state of research, and identify the relevant literature to position and delineate subsequent investigations involving the framing effect and fixation. This research phase also investigated how creativity is conceptualized (i.e., understood, assessed and improved) in SE by exploring the perceptual differences and similarities between SE researchers and practitioners. In the second phase, two controlled experiments were conducted to investigate the impact of framing desiderata first as requirements (in general) and then as prioritized requirements on design creativity (i.e., the originality and practicality of a design). The third phase involved a protocol study to explore the underlying cognitive mechanisms that may explain why framing desiderata as formal requirements affects creativity. The empirical evidence from the second and third phases was interpreted together to propose a theoretical framework that explains the effect of specification formality on design creativity. While the results of the experiments show that specification formality is negatively related to design creativity (i.e., desiderata framed as requirements or prioritized requirements result in designs that are less creative), the findings from the protocol study indicate that the negative relationship between specification formality and design creativity is mediated by fixation (i.e., more formal presentation of desiderata induces fixation and hinders critical thinking). Overall, the results of this dissertation suggest that more formal and structured presentations of desiderata cause requirements fixation—the tendency to attribute undue confidence and importance to desiderata presented as formal requirements statements—that affects design creativity, and thus undermines software engineering success. / Tiivistelmä Ohjelmistotuotannon tutkijoiden keskuudessa on laaja yksimielisyys järjestelmän tarpeiden ja suunnittelun luovuuden ymmärtämisen kriittisyydestä ohjelmistoprojektien menestyksessä. Tämä on motivoinut monia ohjelmistotuotannon vaatimusmäärittelyprosessien parantamiseen liittyviä tutkimuksia. Harvassa on tarkasteltu tarpeiden esitystavan (eli muotoilun) ja luovan suunnittelun lopputuloksen välistä yhteyttä. Tässä väitöskirjassa tarkastellaan tarpeiden muodollisempien esitystapojen vaikutuksia suunnittelun luovuuteen. Tutkimus oli kolmivaiheinen. Ensin referoitiin ohjelmistotuotannossa kognitiivisiin harhoihin liittyvä kirjallisuus kartoittamaan nykytutkimuksen tila ja merkityksellinen kirjallisuus myöhempien, kehysvaikutuksen ja fiksaation sisältävien tutkimusten sijoittamiseen ja rajaamiseen. Lisäksi tarkasteltiin luovuuden käsitteellistämistä (eli ymmärrettävyyttä, arviointia ja parantamista) tutkimalla katsannollisia eroja ja yhtäläisyyksiä tutkijoiden ja ammattilaisten välillä. Toisessa vaiheessa tehtiin kaksi kontrolloitua koetta tarpeiden muotoilun vaikutuksien tutkimiseksi, ensin vaatimuksina (yleisesti) ja sitten tärkeysjärjestykseen laitettuina vaatimuksina suhteessa suunnittelun luovuuteen (eli omaperäisyyteen ja käytännöllisyyteen). Lopuksi, protokollatutkimuksella selvitettiin taustalla olevia kognitiivisia mekanismeja selittämään syitä muodollisina vaatimuksina esitettyjen tarpeiden vaikutuksista luovuuteen. Toisesta ja kolmannesta vaiheesta saatujen empiiristen aineistojen tulkittiin yhdessä muodostavan teoreettisen viitekehyksen, joka selittää määrittelyn muodollisuuden vaikutusta suunnittelun luovuuteen. Vaikka kokeiden tulokset osoittavat määrittelyjen muodollisuuden vaikuttavan negatiivisesti suunnittelun luovuuteen (eli tarpeiden muotoilu vaatimuksina tai priorisoituina vaatimuksina vähentää suunnitelmien luovuutta), protokollatutkimuksen tulokset viittaavat fiksaation vaikuttavan negatiiviseen yhteyteen määrittelyjen muodollisuuden ja suunnittelun luovuuden välillä (eli tarpeiden muodollisempi esitystapa aiheuttaa fiksaatiota ja vaikeuttaa kriittistä ajattelua). Kaiken kaikkiaan, väitöskirjan tulokset esittävät muodollisempien ja strukturoidumpien tarpeiden esitystapojen aiheuttavan vaatimusten fiksaatiota, taipumusta pitää luottamusta ja tärkeyttä tarpeiden muodollisten vaatimusten ilmaisun ansioina, joka vaikuttaa suunnittelun luovuuteen heikentäen ohjelmistotuotannon menestymisen mahdollisuutta.

Das Thema der Nachhaltigkeit hat in dem letzten Jahrzehnt einen spürbaren gesellschaftlichen Aufschwung erfahren. Doch trotz dessen zeigt sich immer noch eine deutliche Diskrepanz zwischen dem Bewusstsein der KonsumentInnen und dem tatsächlichen nachhaltigen Handeln (Pufé 2014). Diesbezüglich wird in dieser Arbeit dem sog. Framing-Effekt von Daniel Kahneman eine entscheidende Rolle zugeschrieben. Er beschreibt eine Möglichkeit, das Entscheidungsverhalten von VerbraucherInnen durch die unterschiedliche Darstellung gleicher Informationen zu steuern (Kahneman 2012). Bisher wurden diese beiden Themenkomplexe kaum in Verbindung gebracht, sodass Framing selten einen Beitrag zur Förderung nachhaltiger KonsumentInnenentscheidungen zugesprochen wird. Die Arbeit versucht mit folgender Forschungsfrage genau diesen Zusammenhang zu ergründen: Wie lässt sich Nachhaltigkeit in ökonomischen Kontexten bei Kaufentscheidungen durch Framing realisieren? Durch ein deduktives Ableiten aus der Theorie sowie einer Analogiebildung mittels einer Beispielstudie, konnten handlungsleitende Schlüsse für das Framing von nachhaltigem Konsum gezogen werden. Die Resultate zeigen auf, dass eine Modifizierung der klassischen Nachhaltigkeitsdimensionen notwendig erscheint. Branchen- und zielgruppenübergreifend sollte die ökonomische Dimension beim Framing ausgeklammert werden, um den vorherrschenden „Bias“ der Kosten zu entkräften. Zudem wurde eine neue Dimension „Individuum“ deduktiv abgeleitet, welche die individuellen Konsum- und Lebensstile und damit eine Differenzierung von Zielgruppen und Branchen beim Nachhaltigkeits-Frame einschließt. Des Weiteren wurde festgestellt, dass sowohl Unternehmen, KonsumentInnen als auch die Wissenschaft jeweils einen Beitrag zur Förderung des nachhaltigen Konsums mittels Framing leisten können.

This study sets out to explore attitudes and intentions towards nicotine product goods and how it is affected by the goal framing effect. The presence of this effect has been shown in the advertising of both green products and everyday products. The aim of this research is to explore whether or not this also holds true when it comes to unhealthy products, more precisely tobacco free all white nicotine products.    A quasi experimental study was conducted with the use of a fictitious brand of All-white tobacco. All 63 participants in the three different experimental groups of the study met the mandatory age requirement. One of the three groups received a positively framed advert, another received a negatively framed advert, whereas the last group acted as the control group and therefore received a neutral advertisement stimuli. All participants submitted their answers on a questionnaire created for this study, which was validated using Cronbach’s alpha and factor analysis.   The results suggest that the use of goal framing is beneficial when advertising nicotine product goods. Both positive and negative goal-framing showed a greater effect on purchase intention and product attitude than the control group. The negative goal-framing advert proved to be statistically different than the control group when measuring product attitude. Furthermore, the positively framed advert showed a statistically significant difference in effect on both product attitude and purchase intention compared to the control group.    The findings suggest that positively framed goal-framing has an effect on both attitudes and purchase intention, compared to the neutral stimuli. The negatively framed goal-framing had an effect on attitudes, compared to the neutral stimuli. The practical implication of this study could possibly be that when constructing advertisements for tobacco free snus products, it could be preferable to make use of the positive goal-framing effect in order to affect the consumers purchase intention and attitude towards the product.   This study has confirmed to some extent that the framing effect is a factor prevalent in the advertising of tobacco free products. For further research it would be highly interesting to delve deeper in comparing positive and negative goal-framing in order to find further evidence of which one has greater effect on consumers.

Das Thema der Nachhaltigkeit hat in dem letzten Jahrzehnt einen spürbaren gesellschaftlichen Aufschwung erfahren. Doch trotz dessen zeigt sich immer noch eine deutliche Diskrepanz zwischen dem Bewusstsein der KonsumentInnen und dem tatsächlichen nachhaltigen Handeln (Pufé 2014). Diesbezüglich wird in dieser Arbeit dem sog. Framing-Effekt von Daniel Kahneman eine entscheidende Rolle zugeschrieben. Er beschreibt eine Möglichkeit, das Entscheidungsverhalten von VerbraucherInnen durch die unterschiedliche Darstellung gleicher Informationen zu steuern (Kahneman 2012). Bisher wurden diese beiden Themenkomplexe kaum in Verbindung gebracht, sodass Framing selten einen Beitrag zur Förderung nachhaltiger KonsumentInnenentscheidungen zugesprochen wird. Die Arbeit versucht mit folgender Forschungsfrage genau diesen Zusammenhang zu ergründen: Wie lässt sich Nachhaltigkeit in ökonomischen Kontexten bei Kaufentscheidungen durch Framing realisieren? Durch ein deduktives Ableiten aus der Theorie sowie einer Analogiebildung mittels einer Beispielstudie, konnten handlungsleitende Schlüsse für das Framing von nachhaltigem Konsum gezogen werden. Die Resultate zeigen auf, dass eine Modifizierung der klassischen Nachhaltigkeitsdimensionen notwendig erscheint. Branchen- und zielgruppenübergreifend sollte die ökonomische Dimension beim Framing ausgeklammert werden, um den vorherrschenden „Bias“ der Kosten zu entkräften. Zudem wurde eine neue Dimension „Individuum“ deduktiv abgeleitet, welche die individuellen Konsum- und Lebensstile und damit eine Differenzierung von Zielgruppen und Branchen beim Nachhaltigkeits-Frame einschließt. Des Weiteren wurde festgestellt, dass sowohl Unternehmen, KonsumentInnen als auch die Wissenschaft jeweils einen Beitrag zur Förderung des nachhaltigen Konsums mittels Framing leisten können.

Bakgrund: Intresset för att engagera sig inom investeringar och aktiemarknaden har sett en betydlig ökning genom den senaste årtionden, särskilt bland allt fler yngre individer. Inom dagens samhälle är det allt vanligare att människor inte enbart kommunicerar ansikte mot ansikte, utan också på den digitala arenan via internet och sociala medier. Detta är något som även kommit att förändra hur aktiemarknaden ser ut idag och hur informationsutbytet genomförs bland investerare på marknaden. Syfte: Analysera och beskriva betydelsen av informationsutbyte för unga aktieinvesterare. Teori: Studien tillämpar sig av teorier såsom beteendemässiga finansteorin, heuristik, inramningseffekten, flockbeteende, överdriven självförtroende, effektiva marknadshypotesen, mun-till-mun metoden och elektronisk mun-till-mun metoden. Metod: Studien använde sig av en kvalitativ metod i form av semistrukturerade intervjuer. Urvalet riktade sig mot unga investerare som var från 18 till 29 år gamla och sammanlagt deltog åtta respondenter.  Slutsats: Studiens resultatet kom fram till att informationsutbytet hade en betydelsefull roll för unga aktieinvesterares beslutsfattande och att de hade en större tilltro till information som härstammade från deras närmaste omkrets än från digitala medier. Dessutom framkom det att individer med högre finansiell kunskap och erfarenhet var mindre påverkade av snedvridningar och informationsutbytet. Det gick även att observera att respondenter som påverkades i mindre utsträckning av yttre påverkan, också hade en större nivå av medvetenheten om dessa snedvridningar och heuristik. / Background: Interest in investing and the stock market has seen a significant increase over the past decade, especially among an increasing number of younger individuals. In today's society, it is becoming increasingly more common for people to not only communicate face-to-face but also in the digital arena through the internet and social media. This is something that has also come to change how the stock market looks today and how information is exchanged among investors in the market. Purpose: Analyze and describe the importance of information exchange for young equity investors. Theory: The study applies theories such as the behavioral finance theory, heuristics, the framing effect, herd behavior, overconfidence, the efficient market hypothesis, word-of-mouth communication and electronic word-of-mouth communication. Method: The study used a qualitative method in the form of semi-structured interviews. The sample was aimed at young investors who were from 18 to 29 years old and a total of eight respondents participated. Conclusion: The results of the study concluded that the exchange of information played a significant role in the decision-making of young stock investors and that they had greater trust in information that originated from their immediate circle than from digital media. In addition, it emerged that individuals with higher financial knowledge and experience were less affected by biases and the exchange of information. It was also possible to observe that respondents who were influenced to a lesser extent by external influences also had a greater level of awareness of these biases and heuristics.

2005年4月號The Econonist 經濟學人週刊的封面刊登: 'Power at last - How the internet means the consumer really is king (and queen). ' 沒錯！消費者是國王的時代來臨了！消費者在網際網路上可以隨時隨地取得更多、更有價值的消費訊息，以極低的成本，應用網路中各種透明的消費資訊，任意的改變消費的抉擇，史無前例的表達出有別於過去被動接受產品的主動消費力量，消費利益也確實受到保護，因此以資訊為基礎的行銷策略就是消費者導向策略(Glazer,1997)，呼應了經濟學人週刊的聳動標題；本研究即証明了在獲得充分且有價值的消費資訊，對消費者在進行消費決策與行為時，是具有「主動的」改變力量，因此提供消費者更豐富的消費資訊，也必定能保護更多的消費者利益。 當新的資訊處理技術與傳播媒體出現，或是由某種新工藝的創造與發展，進而改變現存的政治、經濟與文化、風俗產生新的變遷將對消費行為，產生戲劇化影響(Innis, 1951; McLuhan, 1964)，原因在於消費者在面對嶄新而且陌生的消費環境，所採取維護自身消費利益的因應之道；本研究引用學者 Kahneman and . Tversky 提出的「預期理論」（Prospect Theory)，以及Barry Schwatz（2004）提出的「經驗效用」（Experienced Utility）、「期望效用」（）、「記憶效用」（Remembered Utility），因為以人類基於維護自身利益為出發點，方能準確反映出消費者的行為，洞察消費變化的先機；特別是在網際網路平台上對此議題的研究，本研究尚屬先例。 企業經營的成敗可由她與客戶關係的良莠顯現，衡量客戶關係最重要的指標就是：企業是否能由與消費者在消費流程互動中（關係），掌握所留下的足跡（資訊），加以解讀應用並促進消費者再消費，如此資訊的應用就是 Rashi Glazer所稱的企業「關鍵資產」，反映出不斷促進產品、服務交易的要素( Glazer,1997)：如果廠商忽視此變化，影響所及，失去的將不只是企業經營的「關鍵資產」，甚至還會被消費者「主動」的遺棄；因此，在企業經營的研究中，能將劇變如此的消費行為與決策，研究出可遵循與掌握的模式，相信對廠商競爭力的提升有莫大助益。 本研究的貢獻呈現在CORM-PET模式，也就是展現消費者是如何表達他「主動」消費力量的軌跡；試想，當企業發現消費者表示喜歡你的產品卻無消費行動，在過去對企業的影響並不明顯，因為同行也不知道何以如此（無資訊）！但是面對資訊處理能力百倍於過去的今天，能經由對資訊精準處理與應用，知道其中原因的廠商將嶄露頭角；CORM-PET模式就是我們提出能解釋消費行為何以如此的模式，以及能精確應用當前處理資訊的能力，解讀消費行為留下的資料轉為有力的應用資訊，幫助供需雙方在新興「資訊經濟時代」的市場交易中各取所需。 關鍵詞 消費者導向、預期理論、期望效用、記憶效用、經驗效用、稟賦效用、定錨效用、框架效用、消費風險、消費價值、頂端效用、可得性捷思法 / The front cover title of The Econonist magazine (April of 2005) read ' Power at last-How the internet means the consumer really is king (and queen). ' Consumers can obtain more valuable consumption information whenever and wherever in the internet, this shows unprecedentedly consumers’ active consumption strength which is different from their passively accepted the products in the past. Consumers can use the transparent price information in the network with the extremely low cost, and are free to choose any consumption. Consumption interests are also really protected, so the marketing tactics based on information are that consumers lead tactics (Glazer, 1997), which echoed the title of the The Econonist magazine. This research has proved that valuable and sufficient consumption information for consumer while making consumption decision provide active power of change. Therefore, offering more abundant consumption information to consumers can certainly protect more consumers’ interests. Enterprises’ relation with customers can reflect the success or failure of their management. The most important criteria of the relationship are whether both enterprises and consumers can keep enough track in the consumption procedure to facilitate the same consumer to consume again. This is what Glazer (1997) said ' key assets ' of enterprises, which reflect key elements to promote products, service trade constantly. If the owner ignores the fact that information changes consumption decision and behavior, he or she will lose not only ' key assets ' of enterprises, but also can be abandoned by consumers. So if academic research of enterprise management can figure out the model of drastic change of the consumer behavior and decision, which can be followed and grasped, manufacturer's competitiveness will be greatest improved. The change of consumption decision and behavior is because the consumer guided by information in the face of brand-new and strange consumption environment (network market) to adopt and safeguard self-consumption interests. Historian and mass communication scholar (Innis, 1951; McLuhan, 1964) point out such a change, as new materials treatment technology and media appear or new craft created and developed can change extant politics, economy, culture and custom. Other scholars maintain one after another that must extend the value concept of the customer in the past to apply to the business activity in the internet network (Keeney, 1999; Keeney, 1992; Rayport, Sviokla, 1994). All the scholars’ academic researches of mankind’s protect one's own interests over the years, the most excellent theories are 'Prospect Theory' by Kahneman ＆ Tversky. Schwatz’ (2004) 'Experienced Utility ', ' Expected Utility' , ' Remembered Utility '. We adopt the academic research of above-mentioned scholars, as the foundation of developing this research, because the academic research is based on mankind’s safeguarding one's own interests, which is different from others are on roles development. This research based on this kind of research to develop more concrete consumption behavior, especially the consumer behavior on the internet network platform, still belongs to the precedent. The contribution of the study appears in CORM-PET model, which represents how consumers express their initiatively consumption power. Just try to think that when the enterprises find that consumers like your products but not having the consuming action. There was not obvious in the past influence enterprises’ for the counterparts had no idea about the reasons. But information handling ability hundred times to the past today, the manufacturers who can process and apply with information accurately, and know the whys and wherefores will show up prominently. The CORM-PET model we proposed helps to explain how the consumer behavior like this pattern, dealing with information accurately, to understand the materials staying behind in consumer behavior transferring to powerful application information, to help both. Key words: Consumer orientation, Prospect theory, Expected utility, Remembered utility, Experienced utility, Endowment effect, Anchor effect, Framing effect, Consumer risk, Consumer value, Peak effect, Availability heuristics