Esta dissertação visa realizar uma revisão historiográfica da obra Considerações sobre a França (1797), de Joseph de Maistre, que representa um dos primeiros ensaios de interpretação histórica do fenômeno revolucionário em língua francesa e do ponto de vista da contra-revolução. Neste ínterim, pretendemos oferecer uma visão de conjunto do uso que a historiografia da Revolução Francesa fez das Considerações de Maistre. Simultaneamente, empreendemos uma síntese biográfica-intelectual do saboiano, com o objetivo de sublinhar a complexa natureza de sua reação à Revolução e ao Iluminismo reação esta caracterizada por uma excêntrica interação entre jesuitismo, iluminismo e filosofia das Luzes. Por fim, apresentamos ao público uma tradução dessa obra, ainda inédita em língua portuguesa. / The purpose of this study is to present a historical revision of Joseph de Maistres Considérations sur la France (1797), which represents a pioneering attempt of historical interpretation of the revolutionary phaenomenon in French language and from the point of view of the counter-revolution. In doing so, we intend to offer a panoramic view of the use made of Joseph de Maistres most famous pamphlet in the historiography of the French Revolution. It also provides a brief intellectual biography of the savoyard which tries to underline the complexity of the Maistrean reaction to the Enlightenment and the Revolution - marked by an eccentric interaction with certain currents of jesuitism, iluminism and the Enlightenment. Last but not least, we present a translation of the pamphlet, heretofore neglected in Portuguese.

The British entered the War of the First Coalition against Revolutionary France in 1793 diplomatically isolated and militarily unprepared for a major war. Nonetheless, a French attack on the Dutch Republic in February 1793 forced the British to dispatch a small expeditionary force to defend their ally. Throughout the Flanders campaign of 1793, the British expeditionary force served London as a tool to end British isolation and enlist Austrian commitment to securing British war objectives. The 1793 Flanders campaign and the Allied war effort in general have received little attention from historians, and they generally receive dismissive condemnation in general histories of the French Revolutionary Wars. This thesis examines the British participation in the 1793 Flanders campaign a broader diplomatic context through the published correspondence of relevant Allied military and political leaders. Traditional accounts of this campaign present a narrative of defeat and condemn the Allies for their failure to achieve in 1793 the accomplishments of the sixth coalition twenty years later. Such a perspective obscures a clear understanding of the reasons for Allied actions. This thesis seeks to correct this distortion by critically analyzing the relationship between British diplomacy within the Coalition and operations in Flanders. Unable to achieve victory on their own strength, the British used their expeditionary force in Flanders as diplomatic leverage to impose their objectives on the other powers at war with France.

Ce travail se concentre sur le cours d'analyse enseigné à l'École polytechnique de 1795 à 1809. En devenant professeurs, plusieurs mathématiciens au tournant du 19ème siècle y ont contribué par des ouvrages importants d’Analyse. Parmi eux, Joseph-Louis Lagrange (1736-1813) joua un rôle central, en y devenant le premier Institutor d'analyse. Les trois premiers chapitres de cette thèse se focalisent sur les leçons que Lagrange donna de 1795 à 1799. En insistant sur le fait que Lagrange enseignait l'arithmétique à l’École Polytechnique avant son cours d'analyse, la première partie de cette thèse clarifie les raisons pour lesquelles de Lagrange incorporait ces éléments d’arithmétique et leur relation avec le cours d’analyse. Cette étude fournit une discussion détaillée des concepts fondamentaux des mathématiques dans les cours de Lagrange. Ainsi, on y montre que l'intention de Lagrange est de lier des branches différentes de l'analyse à l'algèbre à l'arithmétique. Ce travail montre de quelles façons et en quels termes Lagrange unifie ces branches. De plus, cette thèse met l'accent sur les valeurs épistémologiques que Lagrange poursuit et défend dans ses travaux mathématiques, sur la base desquelles Lagrange a choisi la méthode des développements des fonctions en séries pour présenter les principes du calcul différentiel. La but de la deuxième partie de cette thèse est de montrer à quel point le cours de Lagrange à l'Ecole Polytechnique a influencé l'enseignement de trois autres professeurs: Joseph Fourier (1768-1830), Jean-Guillaume Garnier (1766-1840) et Sylvestre-François Lacroix (1765-1843). Fourier inventa une nouvelle méthode en croisant la méthode de Lagrange et la méthode des limites. Garnier et Lacroix suivent essentiellement la méthode de Fourier, mais avec quelques modifications. En comparant les deux traités du calcul différentiel de Lacroix, cette étude montre que la pratique de l’enseignement, ainsi que la destination des élèves de l’École Polytechnique ont constitué des facteurs importants dans l’évolution des principes du calcul différentiel et de leur présentation / This work studies the courses of analysis taught at the Ecole Polytechnique (EP) from 1795 until 1809. Several mathematicians of the eighteenth century contributed important works as they practiced the teaching of analysis at this school. Joseph-Louis Lagrange (1736-1813) was the central figure, who had been the first professor of the course of analysis at the EP and had great impact on his successors. In order to show in which way and to what degree the lectures that Lagrange gave exerted influence on the teaching of analysis at the EP, this dissertation gives a detailed discussion on Lagrange’s publications and courses of analysis, as well as those by other teachers, i.e. Joseph Fourier(1768-1830), Jean-GuillaumeGarnier(1766-1840)andSylvestre-FrançoisLacroix (1765-1843). It achieves the following conclusions. First, Lagrange, taking into account the utility for students, chose to found analysis on the method of the developments of functions in series, so that analysis could be united with algebra, and arithmetic as well. Second, Lagrange’s approach to differential calculus, as well as the epistemic values he pursued in his mathematical works, provided influential source for the teaching of analysis by other professors. The thesis is that the three professors who taught beside or after Lagrange followed Lagrange’s ideas, although each made some modifications on his own course

My dissertation examines visual representations of children and childhood in French art from the 1750s until the first decades of the nineteenth century. This period in France is distinct because of the sweeping social and political changes with which images of children and childhood were in dialogue, including the redefinition of bourgeois familial relationships, new medical discoveries that influenced how artists interpreted the human mind and body, the chaos of the French Revolution, and the rise of Napoleon and his codification of the laws of nature. By 1750, Enlightenment thinkers and social reformers viewed the education, nurturing, and protection of innocent children as among the fundamental moral acts that defined humanity. Childhood, once considered insignificant, became a special period of human development that women were naturally suited to cultivate. Amidst the corruption of the Ancien régime, the violence of the French Revolution, and the instability of the state, children were unthreatening emblems of social regeneration and hope. Throughout my dissertation, I explore how the complex written and visual language of nature informed artists’ conceptions of children and childhood during the long eighteenth century. Opposing themes of nature’s wildness, containment, wholesomeness, and mysteriousness in different forms paralleled discourses on children and child-rearing. Prominent eighteenth-century artists like Chardin, Boucher, Fragonard, Greuze, Vigée Lebrun, Marguerite Gérard, and others analyzed contemporary scientific, philosophical, artistic, and pedagogical movements to depict children naturally. Even when Romantic artists like Géricault or Prud’hon imagined nature as a dangerous or mystical entity, the emphasis on the unique truthfulness of a child’s character continued to be a subject of great interest, especially when the scientific community recognized child psychology and pediatrics as their own fields of medical study in the early nineteenth century. Compared to studies that have broadly surveyed the ideologies of childhood as reflected in art, my dissertation investigates the socio-historical contexts in which representations of children were commissioned, produced, and displayed. Why did revolutionary events, artists, and patrons appropriate images of the enlightened child? I propose that representations of children from this period offer indisputable symbolic value: they functioned emblematically to advance the morality of a woman’s reputation, or to philosophically communicate an idea about the state of French society during key moments of social and political upheaval. Through a study of images of pastoral children for Madame de Pompadour, representations of bourgeois children with pets, portrayals of the royal children during the French Revolution, and Romantic depictions of children in portraiture, my dissertation traces the socio-historical implications of the representations of children and childhood to make way for new interpretations of artworks.

François-Denis Tronchet, jurisconsulte, participa, aux premières places, à l'application du droit, mais aussi à son écriture, à un moment de l'histoire de France où les juristes refusèrent d'être les interprètes du passé pour devenir les agents du devenir historique. Il prit part à tous les grands événements de la Révolution : les Etats généraux, le Serment du Jeu de Paume, la nuit du 4-août, l'élaboration de la Constitution de 1791, la fuite du roi arrêtée à Varennes, le procès du roi ; il siégea, sous le Directoire, au Conseil des Anciens ; enfin, il fut le premier président du Tribunal de cassation sous le Consulat, avant de présider la commission chargée de l'élaboration du Code civil. La pensée de cet avocat au Parlement de Paris fut décisive dans le passage de l'ancien droit au nouveau. Elle s'y exprime dans ses consultations, qui constituent la principale source de cette étude. Conservées aujourd'hui à la bibliothèque de la Cour de cassation, elles constituent une source exceptionnelle, rarement exploitée. Pourtant, des documents furent une source d'inspiration méconnue du Code civil. Il s'agit donc d'une configuration tout-à-fait remarquable, où l'historien dispose tout à la fois d'un travail juridique, les consultations, et du résultat qu'elles ont contribué à inspirer, le Code civil, qui régit toujours notre présent. En outre, on trouve, entre la source (les consultations) et sa résultante (le Code), des témoignages précis de l'action politique de Tronchet, notamment dans les archives parlementaires. Comment un juriste aussi érudit, aussi imprégné de tradition que François-Denis Tronchet a-t-il pu participer de façon aussi décisive à la Révolution, devenant, au moment de la rédaction du Code civil, l'artisan d'un droit absolument nouveau ? L'art de la consultation, par la liberté que donne l'interprétation, lui avait donné la capacité d'envelopper son avis personnel, parfois très créatif, des formes apparemment objectives de l'autorité de l'avocat consultant. Il s'était ainsi préparé à la grande réorganisation des normes de 1789. En outre, la participation à des réseaux d'opposition proches du jansénisme ; l'influence, dans les milieux parlementaires, du culte de la république romaine et d'une philosophie stoïcienne, transmise par l'intermédiaire de Cicéron, qui soulignait la centralité politique de la justice et de la loi naturelle ; tous ces facteurs expliquent ses prises de position favorables à la Révolution, mais aussi le rôle qu'il joua dans la défense du roi. Pour conclure, il voyait la Révolution comme une régénération, une transformation du présent par un retour authentique aux principes passés. Tronchet, comme les antiques jurisconsultes, a cherché à fixer la Révolution à des principes déterminés de toute éternité. / François-Denis Tronchet, a Jurisconsult, played a crucial role in the interpretation of Law, but also in its writing, during the French Revolution. During this period of French history, some jurists refused to be only interpreters of the Past, and began to be true actors of History. François-Denis Tronchet took part in nearly all important events of the French Revolution : the Estates-General, the Tennis Court Oath, the Fourth of August and the abolition of feudal privileges, the writing of the Constitution of 1791, the flight of Louis XVI stopped at Varennes, the King's trial. He was a Member of Parliament (of the Conseil des Anciens) during the Directoire ; lastly, he was the president of the Tribunal de cassation during the Consulate and he presided the commission in charge of the redaction of the civil code. His thought was decisive in the transformation of French Law during the French Revolution. It is conveyed in its consultations, which are the main historical source of this dissertation. Today stored at the library of the Cour de cassation, they constitute an extraordinarysource, rarely used. However, these documents inspired the French civil code. Here, historians have a hand, at the same time, a lawyer's work, the consultations, and the result they partly inspired, the civil Code, that still inspires our present. Besides, between the source (the consultations) and its result (the Code) we have some documents about the political life of Tronchet (mainly parliamentary records). How is it so, that such a learned jurist, so influenced by ancient juridical traditions, played such a crucial role in the French revolution, becoming, during the redaction process of the Civil code, the architect of an absolutely new Law ? During the Ancien regime, the art of consultation gave him, by way of the intellectual freedom of interpretation, the ability of giving his own opinion, sometimes very creative, under the guise of apparently objective, and authoritative, form of the consultation. Therefore, he was intellectually prepared to the reorganization of Law brought about by the French Revolution. Besides, other factors explain his participation in the French Revolution. His belonging to opposition networks, close to Jansenism, during the Ancien Regime accounts for his itinerary. The influence, in parliamentary circles, of the celebration of the Roman Republic as well as the influence of stoic philosophy, conveyed through Cicero's writingd, which underlined the major importance of justice and natural Law, also partly account for his adhesion to the Revolution. These intellectual influences also explain his defence of Louis XVI during his trial. To conclude, he viewed the Revolution as a process of regeneration, a transformation of time present by a resurrection of the true principles of ancient Law.

This thesis presents an analysis of Edmund Burke's place in intellectual history by examining his commentary on the French Revolution as well as his role in the Enlightenment itself. In doing so, it brings to bear the previously unexplored ideas of the twentieth-century historian Roy Porter. The thesis proposes that Burke's indictment of French philosophy as the cause of the French Revolution created enduring historiographic connotations between radicalism and the notion of enlightenment. Consequently, British thinkers of the eighteenth-century were invariably dismissed as conservative or reactionary and therefore unworthy to be regarded as enlightened figures. Porter's reconsideration of the British Enlightenment reveals Burke to be a staunch defender of hard-won enlightened values which British society had already long enjoyed.<p>The source material is, for the most part, primary. For Edmund Burke, his correspondence and his Reflections on the Revolution in France. For Roy Porter, his most relevant essays, journal articles and monographs.

This thesis presents an analysis of Edmund Burke's place in intellectual history by examining his commentary on the French Revolution as well as his role in the Enlightenment itself. In doing so, it brings to bear the previously unexplored ideas of the twentieth-century historian Roy Porter. The thesis proposes that Burke's indictment of French philosophy as the cause of the French Revolution created enduring historiographic connotations between radicalism and the notion of enlightenment. Consequently, British thinkers of the eighteenth-century were invariably dismissed as conservative or reactionary and therefore unworthy to be regarded as enlightened figures. Porter's reconsideration of the British Enlightenment reveals Burke to be a staunch defender of hard-won enlightened values which British society had already long enjoyed.<p>The source material is, for the most part, primary. For Edmund Burke, his correspondence and his Reflections on the Revolution in France. For Roy Porter, his most relevant essays, journal articles and monographs.

The present study examines a specific form of literary memorialization of Scottishness, stubborn and elusive as that term might be, under the concrete political, social, and economic conditions of the late eighteenth-century. It holds that literary history and criticism can make a significant contribution to understanding Scottish history, both in its own terms and in relation to British history writ large. It inserts into these histories a much wider range of late eighteenth-century Scottish poets than previous scholarship and deepens our understanding of the cultural and discursive manifestations of British state formation under the extreme stress of war and revolution. It also reveals the way the political crisis of the French Revolution converged with pre-existing concerns about the impact of union on the Scottish economy and society, as well as with shared Anglo-Scottish critiques of state power that feature so prominently in the political history of this period. Many of the poets studied here have never figured significantly in political, cultural, or literary histories of the period and, with a few notable exceptions, no analysis of their poetry, whether in political or literary terms, has yet occurred. Consequently, this study brings both historical and literary analysis to bear on a large and diverse group of Scottish poets with a range of political and aesthetic perspectives that reflect not only on the question of Scottish, English, and British "identities," but on the formation of British poetry more generally. / text

Louis-Antoine Léon de Saint-Just (1767-1794) was a revolutionary, a statesman, and a political philosopher, yet it is largely only as a revolutionary that he is remembered. As a political person who occupied these three different but overlapping roles, Saint-Just is ideal as the subject and center of a study of actualization, the taking of political ideals into reality. Saint-Just’s political philosophy was that of an idealist, and yet he, by force of circumstance, ability, and audacity, had the opportunity in his short life to attempt to establish and put into practice his political ideals. In his work as a political person Saint-Just created templates for the understanding of the relationship between political theory and political action. Saint-Just’s political theory is examined in relation to his political action, using the concepts of ‘the natural’, ‘the civil’, ‘the social’ and ‘the political’, concepts which are central in Saint-Just’s political philosophy. Saint-Just’s formulations of these concepts, concepts which have also been central to the history of political philosophy, and his understanding of the relations between these concepts, helps to establish him as a political philosopher of some importance, as does the theory and practice approach to politics which his attempts demanded and which his political life demonstrated. In Saint-Just’s function as political philosopher the thesis finds the theoretical element of politics, which becomes redefined in its interaction with Saint-Just’s other functions as statesman and revolutionary, the latter two of which correspond roughly to practice and exigency. As a theorist who is also a statesman in a context of exigency, or revolution, Saint-Just’s political life is a constantly rearranged juxtaposition of theory, practice, and revolution, albeit one which never loses it essential ties to its philosophical base, even in the hours of greatest emergency. Such dedication to a philosophical base, one which refuses to dispense with political philosophy, demonstrates a new conception of political philosophy for the modern world, fills in elements of a theory of revolution as a phenomenon of both theory and action, and provides a contained case for examination of political philosophy and political action, questioning their disunity.

The French Revolution continues to fascinate historians. The political culture which it is said to have spawned has recently become a particularly salient feature in its recent historiography. Many have argued that the discrepancy between the hopes that the Revolution initially generated and the destruction, war, and terror that followed was the inevitable result of this culture. Within this framework, the defeat of the constitutional proposals of the group of moderate politicians known as the Monarchiens has been portrayed as the Revolution’s missed opportunity to avoid the violence of the Terror. Their most important proposals were for a bicameral legislature and strong royal authority. My thesis questions assumptions about the ideological coherence of the five most influential proponents of this model and the inevitability of their defeat. To do this, I will analyze the pre-revolutionary political careers of these men up to the defeat of their proposals in the summer of 1789, and demonstrate that their political proposals were contingent on the political context, often changing drastically to fit the demands of circumstance.