Le co-transporteur potassium-chlorure 2, KCC2, contrôle la concentration intracellulaire des ion chlorure (Cl-) dans les neurones matures et régule ainsi la force inhibitrice de l'acide γ-amino butyrique (GABA) et de la glycine, principaux neurotransmetteurs inhibiteurs du système nerveux central. Plusieurs troubles neurologiques sont associés à une diminution de l'expression de KCC2, qui se traduit par l'hyperexcitabilité du réseau neuronal. L'objectif de ce travail de thèse était d'identifier et caractériser les éléments structuraux de la protéine qui sont impliqués dans la régulation de son activité d'un point de vue physiologique et pathologique. J'ai développé de nouvelles approches pour enregistrer l'activité de transporteur d'ions ainsi que l'expression membranaire de KCC2. Ces outils m'ont permis de caractériser de nouveaux éléments structuraux qui régulent le fonctionnement de cette protéine, à savoir, son insertion dans la membrane plasmique, son internalisation ou encore son activité intrinsèque de transporteur d'ions. Enfin, nous avons montré que deux mutations (R952H et R1049C), identifiées chez des patients atteints d'épilepsie idiopathique généralisée (EIG), entrainent la diminution de l'expression membranaire de la protéine et de sa fonction de transporteur de Cl- in vitro. Nos résultats changent la vision actuelle du rôle fonctionnel des régions de KCC2, soulignent l'importance d'étudier l'expression membranaire de la protéine, conjointement à son activité de transporteur, et enfin, démontrent pour la première fois que des mutations sur le gène KCC2, retrouvées chez des patients atteints d'EGI, peuvent perturber le fonctionnement du transporteur. / The potassium chloride co-transporter 2, KCC2, controls the intracellular chloride (Cl-) concentration in mature neurons and thus regulates the inhibitory forces of γ-amino butyrique (GABA) and glycine, the major inhibitory neurotransmitters in the central nervous system. Several neurological disorders are associated with down-regulation of KCC2 expression, resulting in hyperexcitability of neural network. The aim of this thesis was to identify and characterize the structural elements of the protein involved in the regulation of its activity under physiological and pathological conditions. I developed new approaches to record ion-transport activity and membrane expression of KCC2. These tools allowed me to characterize new structural elements regulating the functioning of the protein, namely insertion into plasma membrane, internalisation or intrinsic activity of ion-transport. Finally, we showed that two mutations (R952H and R1049C) identified in patients with idiopathic generalized epilepsy (IGE), cause the decrease in membrane protein expression and its function of Cl-transporter in vitro. Our results change the current view on the functional role of KCC2 regions, emphasize the importance of studying membrane protein expression, together with its transporter activity, and finally, demonstrate for the first time that mutations in the KCC2 gene found in patients with EGI, may interfere with transporter function.

Les interneurones GABAergiques dans l’hippocampe forment de petites populations diverses de neurones inhibiteurs contrôlant le transfert d’informations dans de larges ensembles de cellules principales. Ils compensent leur infériorité numérique par de vastes arborisations axonales capables de maintenir une libération vésiculaire de GABA à haute fréquence, et d’ajuster précisément la balance entre excitation et inhibition pour différents régimes d’activité du réseau. Les petites synapses centrales contiennent un nombre limité de vésicules synaptiques dont le recyclage par endocytose est essentiel au maintien de la transmission pendant une activité répétée. Le remplissage en GABA de ces vésicules recyclées est dépendant d’un approvisionnement des terminaisons en GABA suffisant pour faire face à la demande de recyclage créée par l’activité. Nos résultats mettent en évidence de nouveaux mécanismes d’adaptation de l’approvisionnement aux besoins imposés par le recyclage vésiculaire selon le régime d’activité, ainsi qu’un couplage direct entre le cycle de neurotransmetteurs et le cycle vésiculaire. Nous montrons que les transporteurs de glutamine sont responsables d’une potentialisation de l’approvisionnement des varicosités en GABA lors d’une activité répétée, probablement par une augmentation du nombre de ces transporteurs à la membrane. En développant et en utilisant des paradigmes expérimentaux nouveaux, nous montrons que la régulation métabolique du cycle vésiculaire passe par une adaptation du pool de vésicules recyclantes à la disponibilité en neurotransmetteurs. La nature du senseur de cette régulation et sa localisation cytosolique ou luminale restent à déterminer / In the hippocampus, GABAergic interneurons represent only 10% of the neuronal population but are able to synchronize the activity of large neuronal networks. They compensate their numerical inferiority by a large axonal arborization to sustain synaptic activity at high frequency and adjust the balance between excitation and inhibition for different regime of activity. Since small central synapses contain a limited pool of vesicles, their recycling by endocytosis is essential to maintain transmission during repeated activity. The filling of recycling vesicles with GABA is dependent on its supply in terminals which should be adjusted to the demand imposed by vesicular recycling. Our results reveal new transporter mechanisms that adapt GABA supply to neuron activity, suggesting a direct coupling between the neurotransmitter and the vesicle cycles. We show that high recycling activity increases GABA supply, probably by increasing the number of glutamine transporters at the membrane. By developing and using FM5-95 and VGAT-pHluorin with a new experimental paradigm, we provide evidence for a metabolic regulation of the vesicle cycle that involves a dynamic adaptation of the recycling pool to the neurotransmitter availability. The nature of the sensor of this regulation and its cytosolic or luminal location remain to be determined.

Les neurones GABAergiques sont une composante majeure des réseaux neuronaux corticaux. Au cours du développement, les neurones GABAergiques pionniers générés aux stades les plus précoces de l’embryogénèse forment une sous-population de neurones « hubs ». Cependant, leurs propriétés et leurs fonctions à l'âge adulte restent inconnus. En combinant différentes techniques, nous montrons que ces neurones pionniers ont également une fonction « hub » dans la région CA1 en développement in vitro et qu’ils maintiennent une forte connectivité fonctionnelle pendant les périodes de veille calme chez la souris adulte in vivo. Ces neurones, peu actifs de façon spontanée chez l’adulte, sont préférentiellement recrutés pendant les activités calciques synchrones souvent associées aux oscillations de type « SWRs ». Ceci est compatible avec leur faible excitabilité intrinsèque, révélée par des enregistrements en courant-imposé. L’étude des connexions synaptiques afférentes des neurones pionniers de CA1 adulte, par optogénétique, révèle un schéma de connectivité remarquable avec des entrées synaptiques GABAergiques issues du septum et la quasi-absence d’entrées thalamiques. Localement, ces neurones reçoivent moins de courants postsynaptiques GABAergiques, témoignant d’une intégration différentielle dans le réseau GABAergique inhibiteur. Enfin, nous montrons qu’une majorité significative de ces neurones pionniers appartiennent à la famille des neurones à projection longue distance. En conclusion, nous montrons que les neurones GABAergiques pionniers sont prédéterminés à occuper une place remarquable dans l’organisation fonctionnelle et structurale de l’hippocampe tout au long de leur vie. / The remarkable diversity of cortical GABAergic neurons is rooted, at least in part, in their embryonic origins. Adding to the spatial control of interneuron specification is a temporal schedule that has significant impact on their fate. In the CA3 region of the hippocampus, GABAergic cells born the earliest (ebGABA) form a sparse subpopulation acting as ‘hubs’ during development and surviving until adulthood. However, their properties and function in adulthood remain elusive. Using a combination of techniques, we demonstrate that ebGABA neurons also operate as “hubs” in the developing CA1 region in vitro and that they seem to maintain such remarkable functional connectivity into adulthood as observed during quiet rest in vivo. EbGABA display a lower spontaneous activity rate, as expected from their lower intrinsic excitability and are preferentially recruited during the synchronous calcium events previously shown to be associated with SWRs. EbGABA also display a remarkable synaptic connectivity scheme as they receive long-range GABAergic septal inputs but are almost excluded from thalamic afferents. Locally, they receive fewer spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic currents, indicating a particular integration into local GABAergic circuits. Moreover, using combinatorial immunohistochemistry, we have shown that a majority of these ebGABA neurons are long-range projection GABAergic neurons. We conclude that, ebGABA cells are predetermined to become exceptional nodes in the functional and structural organization of the hippocampus, throughout their lifetime.

La césarienne est un mode d’accouchement alternatif recommandé lorsque la vie de la mère ou du fœtus pourrait être mise en danger par l’accouchement naturel. Ces dernières années, de nombreuses études ont rapporté que la césarienne augmentait le risque de développer des troubles tels que l’autisme. Pourtant, ces études sont controversées à cause des nombreux facteurs impliqués dans la naissance par césarienne à prendre en compte. Pour résoudre ce problème, nous avons utilisé des souris nées par césarienne et évalué des paramètres liés à l’autisme. En évaluant leur sociabilité, communication verbale et comportements répétitifs, nous avons trouvé que la césarienne n’induit qu’une modification précoce et transitoire de la communication. La césarienne n’affecte pas non plus l’activité cérébrale même si de petites altérations morphologiques éphémères sont observées à la naissance. Par conséquent, la césarienne conduit à des modifications à court terme non suffisantes pour induire l’autisme. / Cesarean section (C-section) is an alternative mode of delivery which is recommended when the mother or the fetus’ life might be endangered by natural childbirth. In recent years, epidemiological studies have reported that C-section delivery might increase the probability to develop disorders such as autism. However, these reports remain controversial due to the numerous factors involved in birth by C-section. To tackle this issue, we used mice delivered by C-section and looked at parameters associated with autism. We evaluated sociability, communication and repetitive behaviors in our mice and found that C-section only induces transient and early modifications in their communication. Also, we did not find changes in brain activity, even if small temporal morphological alterations were present after C-section. Therefore, C-section delivery leads to short-term modifications that are not sufficient to induce autism.

A expressão de respostas de medo condicionadas e incondicionadas geradas por estímulos auditivos de natureza aversiva envolve a transmissão neural do colículo inferior (CI) para o núcleo geniculado medial do tálamo, principalmente através do seu núcleo central (CIc). Como outras drogas de abuso, o álcool atua em múltiplos alvos no cérebro produzindo uma variedade de efeitos, incluindo tanto efeitos recompensadores quanto aversivos. A ingestão crônica e a síndrome de abstinência ao álcool promovem alterações severas na regulação homeostática entre GABA e glutamato: os principais neurotransmissores inibitório e excitatório respectivamente, do sistema nervoso central, particularmente do CI. Esse estudo tem o objetivo de investigar os efeitos da interrupção crônica de álcool no processamento da informação acústica no CIc de ratos dependentes de álcool pelo uso da técnica dos potenciais evocados auditivos (PEA). Como uma medida adicional, os PEAs também foram registrados em ratos sob os efeitos do álcool. A influência da neurotransmissão de GABA e de glutamato na modulação das modificações induzidas pela abstinência ao álcool foi analisada por microinjeções locais no CI do agonista GABAA muscimol e do antagonista NMDA AP7. Nossos resultados mostraram que a ingestão crônica de álcool promove o seu bem conhecido efeito ansiolítico no processamento da informação auditiva no CIc, reduzindo a amplitude do PEA. Por outro lado, a abstinência ao álcool causa um aumento da sensibilidade dos neurônios do CIc a estímulos auditivos. Este efeito apareceu somente após 96 horas da retirada do álcool. Os resultados obtidos com a manipulação farmacológica mostraram que o muscimol e o AP7 promoveram efeitos bastante distintos com cursos de tempo diferentes. De fato, o muscimol foi eficaz na redução dos PEAs em ratos com 48 horas de abstinência. O antagonismo de receptores glutamatérgicos NMDA ocorreu somente após 96 horas da retirada do álcool. Esses resultados mostraram que as modificações induzidas pela abstinência ao álcool em neurônios do CIc de ratos dependentes de álcool são diferentemente modulados por mecanismos GABA e NMDA. / The expression of conditioned and unconditioned fear responses generated by auditory stimuli of aversive nature, involves neural transmission from the inferior colliculus (IC) to the medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus and thence to the integrates acoustic information of aversive nature, mainly by its central nucleus (cIC). Like other drugs of abuse, alcohol acts on multiple targets in the brain to produce a complex array of effects, including both rewarding and aversive ones. Alcohol administration and alcohol withdrawal syndrome promote severe changes in the normal homeostatic regulation between GABA and glutamate; the major inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmitters in the IC, respectively. This study was aimed at investigating the alcohol chronic withdrawal effects on the processing of acoustic information in the cIC of alcohol-dependent rats through the use of the auditory evoked potentials (AEPs) technique. As an additional measure AEPs were also recorded in rats under alcohol effects. The influence of GABA and glutamate neurotransmission on the modulation of changes induced by alcohol withdrawal was analyzed by local IC microinjections of the GABAA agonist muscimol and the NMDA antagonist AP7. Our results showed that the chronic intake of alcohol promotes its well-known anxiolytic-like effects on the processing of auditory information in the cIC, reducing the amplitude of the AEPs. On the other hand, alcohol withdrawal causes increased sensitivity of the cIC neurons to auditory stimuli. This effect appeared only after 96 hours of alcohol withdrawal. The results obtained with the pharmacological manipulation showed that muscimol and AP7 promoted quite distinct effects with different time courses. In fact, muscimol was effective in reducing AEPs in 48 hours withdrawal-rats. The antagonism of glutamate NMDA receptors occurred only at 96 hours of alcohol withdrawal. These results showed that the changes induced by alcohol withdrawal on cIC neurons of alcohol-dependent rats are differently modulated by GABA and NMDA mechanisms.

O presente trabalho teve por objetivo investigar a variação na secreção de LH em resposta ao tratamento com neurotransmissores, na presença ou não de esteróides gonadais e desta forma gerar informações sobre os mecanismos neuroendócrinos envolvidos na maturação sexual de novilhas da raça Nelore. A concentração de LH foi quantificada por radioimunoensaio e as novilhas ovariectomizadas (OVX) apresentaram maior concentração basal de LH (P≤0,05), que as novilhas inteiras (INT). A administração de um antagonista gabaérgico (picrotoxina, 0,18 mg/kg, iv, amostras 15 min por 10 h) aos 8, 10, 14 e 17 meses de idade, aumentou (P≤0,05) a concentração média e área total de secreção de LH nas novilhas INT tratadas aos 14 meses, a área total dos picos e área do maior pico de secreção de LH foi maior (P≤0,05) nas novilhas OVX aos 14 e 17 meses de idade . A administração de um antagonista dopaminérgico (sulpiride, 0,59 mg/kg, sc, amostras 15 min por 10 h) aos 8, 12 e 16 meses de idade diminuiu (P≤0,05) a secreção de LH (concentração média, área total, área total dos picos e área do maior pico secreção de LH) nas novilhas OVX aos 8 meses de idade. A administração de um estimulador alfa-adrenérgico (clonidina, 10 µg/kg, iv, amostras 15 min por 4 h) aos 8, 12 e 15 meses de idade, diminuiu (P≤0,05) o número de picos nas novilhas OVX com 8 meses de idade. A administração do 17β-estradiol (2 µg/kg, iv, amostra 15 min por 3 h, 1 h por 7 h e 3 h por 22 h) aos 10, 13 e 17 meses de idade diminuiu a diferença (P≥0,05) entre os grupos OVX e INT em relação ao número de picos, área total de picos, área do maior pico e tempo necessário para acontecer o maior pico. Foi avaliada a secreção de LH da desmama à primeira ovulação em novilhas INT e OVX. A concentração de LH aumentou durante a maturação sexual, tanto nas novilhas INT quanto nas OVX. O número de picos de secreção de LH e amplitude máxima de secreção de LH foi maior (P≤0,05) nas novilhas OVX com o aproximar da primeira ovulação. Os resultados indicam uma diminuição da sensibilidade do hipotálamo aos esteróides gonadais durante o processo de maturação sexual nas novilhas da raça Nelore e a participação alternada de neurotransmissores, inibindo e estimulando a secreção de LH. Concluímos que, em novilhas pré-púberes da raça Nelore o desenvolvimento da retroalimentação positiva aos esteróides gonadais no hipotálamo foi importante para aumentar a secreção de LH antes da primeira ovulação, com a participação de neurotransmissores estimulando ou inibindo a secreção de LH. / The variation on LH secretion after neurotransmitter administration, on the presence or absence of gonadal steroid, was investigated, generating information about the mechanisms evolved on sexual maturation in Nellore heifers. LH concentration was quantified by RIA. As expected ovariectomized heifers higher basal LH concentration (P≤0,05) than intact heifers. The picrotoxin administration (GABA antagonist, 0,18 mg/kg, iv, samples 15 min for 10 h) at 8, 10, 14 and 17 months of age increased (P≤0,05) average concentration and total secretion area on intact treated heifers at 14 months and peak total area and area of highest peal on ovariectomized heifers at 14 and 17 months of age. The dopaminergic antagonist (sulpiride, 0.59 mg/kg, sc, sample 15 min for 10 h) administrated at 8, 12 and 16 months of age decreased (P≤0,05) LH secretion (average levels, total peak area and area of the highest secretion peak) on ovariectomized heifers at 8 months of age. The administration of an alfa-adrenérgic stimulatory (clonidine 10 µg/kg, iv, samples 15 min for 4 h) at 8, 12 and 15 months of age decreased (P≤0,05) decreased the number of peaks at 8 months of age. 17β-estradiol administration (2 µg/kg, iv, samples every 15 min for 3 h, every 1 h for 7 h and every 3 h for 22 h) decreased the differences between ovariectomized and intact heifers on number of peaks, total peak area, highest peak area and time to highest peak occurrence. The LH secretion from weaning to first ovulation in non treated intact and ovariectomized heifers was also evaluated. LH concentration increase during sexual maturation in both ovariectomized and intact heifers. The number of peaks, and maximum LH secretion amplitude was higher in ovariectomized heifer closest to first ovulation, when compared to intact heifers. The results suggested a decrease on hipothalamus sensitivity to gonadal steroid during the sexual maturation in Nelore heifer associated with neurotransmitter participation either stimulating or inhibiting LH secretion. It was possible to conclude that the decrease of negative feedback associated with the increase on positive feedback of gonadal steroids over hipothalamus was necessary to increase LH secretion before first ovulation, that was associated with neurotransmitter participation on LH secretion.

A importância de aminoácidos em tripanossomatídeos vai além da síntese de aminoácidos, envolvendo processos tais como a diferenciação, osmorregulação e metabolismo energético. A disponibilidade dos aminoácidos envolvidos nestas funções depende, entre outras coisas, de seu transporte na célula. Aqui, caracterizamos o transporte de glutamato e GABA do parasita protozoário humano Trypanosoma cruzi. No transporte de glutamato dados cinéticos amostram um único sistema saturável com uma Km de 0.30 mM e uma velocidade máxima de 98.34 pmoles min-1 per 2 x 107 células para epimastigotas é 20 pmoles min-1 per 2 x 107 células para trypomastigotas, e uma Vmax de 84.45 pmoles/min/20x106 células com uma Km de 0.4 mM para o sistema de transporte de GABA. O transporte não apresentou alterações em condições de jejum de até 3 horas. Aspartato, alanina, glutamina, asparagina, metionina, oxaloacetato é alfa-cetoglutarato competiram com o substrato em concentrações dez vezes em excesso na incorporação de glutamato. Interessantemente, o transporte de glutamato aumentou fortemente na presença de GABA. O transporte de glutamato foi fortemente dependente do pH, mas não de concentrações de Na+ e K+ no meio extracelular, e o transporte de GABA foi fortemente dependente de K+. Estes dados foram consistentes com uma sensibilidade do sistema de transporte a um ionóforo (FCCP), sugerindo que o transporte é levado por um gradiente de concentração de H+ na membrana plasmática nos dois sistemas de transporte. O transporte de glutamato e GABA aumentou linearmente com a temperatura na faixa de 15 a 40o C. / The role of amino acids in trypanosomatids goes beyond protein synthesis, involving processes such as differentiation, osmoregulation and energy metabolism. The availability of the amino acids involved in those functions depends, among other things, on their transport into the cell. Here we characterize a glutamate transporter and GABA transport from the human protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. In the glutamate transport, data kinetics show a single saturable system with a Km of 0.30 mM and a maximum velocity of 98.34 pmoles min-1 per 2 x 107 cells for epimastigotes and 20 pmoles min-1 per 2 x 107 cells for trypomastigotes, and, a Vmax de 84.45 pmoles/min/20x106 cells and a Km of 0.4 mM for GABA transport system. Transport was not affected by parasite nutrient starvation for up to 3h in the two transport system. Aspartate, alanine, glutamine, asparagine, methionine, oxaloacetate and alpha-ketoglutarate competed with the substrate in 10-fold excess concentrations in the glutamate incorporation. Interestingly, the glutamate transport was strongly increased in the presence of GABA. Glutamate uptake was strongly dependent on pH, but not on Na+ or K+ concentrations in the extracellular medium, and the GABA transport was strongly dependent of K+. These data were consistent with the sensitivity of the system to the H+ ionophore carbonyl cyanide p-trifluoromethoxyphenylhydrazone, suggesting that transport is driven by H+ concentration gradient across the cytoplasm membrane in two transport systems. The glutamate and GABA transport increased linearly with temperature in a range from 15 to 40 degrees C.

Tem sido proposto que vias serotonérgicas distintas originárias do núcleo dorsal da rafe (NDR) modulariam diferentes tipos de reações de defesa a estímulos aversivos. Deakin e Graeff (1991) propuseram que a ativação da via ascendente do NDR, que inerva a amígdala e o córtex frontal, facilitaria comportamentos defensivos aprendidos em resposta a perigo potencial ou distal, enquanto que a ativação da via periventricular, também originária no NDR e que inerva a matéria cinzenta periaquedutal dorsal (MCPD) inibiria reações de fuga e luta inatas em resposta a perigo proximal. No presente trabalho pretendeu-se explorar esta hipótese investigando o efeito da inibição do NDR, da MCPD e do núcleo amigdalóide basolateral, em ratos submetidos a dois modelos animais de ansiedade: o labirinto em T elevado (LTE) e o modelo de transição claro-escuro (MTCE). Os testes com o LTE incluíram uma variação metodológica: um dia antes do experimento, os animais foram pré-expostos por 30 minutos a um dos braços abertos do modelo. Tem sido demonstrado que a pré-exposição leva a uma diminuição do tempo gasto em atividade exploratória no braço aberto, assegurando que durante as medidas de fuga, os animais estão realmente fugindo do estímulo aversivo. No presente trabalho, a administração intra-NDR do agonista gabaérgico muscimol diminuiu as latências da esquiva inibitória (EI), efeito ansiolítico, e da fuga dos braços abertos do LTE, efeito ansiogênico. Além disso, o muscimol intra-NDR aumentou o tempo gasto no compartimento claro (TGCC) do MTCE, efeito ansiolítico. Por outro lado, a droga não apresentou efeito no modelo do labirinto em T fechado. Já a microinjeção de muscimol intra-MCPD aumentou a latência de fuga do braço aberto do LTE, efeito ansiolítico, não apresentando qualquer efeito na EI do labirinto em T elevado ou no MTCE. Finalmente, a administração de muscimol intra-amígdala basolateral prejudicou a esquiva inibitória do LTE e aumentou o TGCC do MTCE, efeitos ansiolíticos, sem alterar a fuga dos braços abertos. Em conjunto, os dados do presente trabalho corroboram alguns dos pressupostos da teoria do papel dual da 5-HT na ansiedade proposta por Deakin e Graeff (1991). É interessante salientar, ainda, a importância da pré-exposição sobre as medidas de fuga do braço aberto do LTE. / It has been proposed that distinct 5-HT pathways modulate different types of anxiety reaction to aversive stimuli. Deakin and Graeff (1991) proposed that the activation of the ascending dorsal raphe (DR)-5-HT pathways innervating the amygdala and frontal cortex would facilitate learned defensive behaviors in response to distal or potential threat, while activation of the DR-periventricular 5-HT pathways, which innervates the dorsal periaqueductal gray matter (DPAG) would inhibit innate flight or fight reactions in response to proximal threat. In an attempt to explore this hypothesis, we investigated the effects of reversible inhibition of the DRN, the DPAG and of the basolateral amygdala nucleus in rats exposed to 2 animal models of anxiety: the elevated T maze (ETM) and the light-dark model (LDM). An important methodological difference was included to the ETM tests. The animals were exposed for 30 minutes to one of the ETM open arms, 24 h before the tests. Pre-exposure seems to improve escape measurements in the ETM, assuring that during escape, animals are really escaping from the aversive threat and not simply ambling. In the present study, muscimol administered intra-DRN impaired both the avoidance, anxyolitic effect, and the escape task, anxyogenic effect, of the ETM and increased the time spent in the light compartment (TSLC) in the LDM, an anxyolitic effect. On the other hand, muscimol microinjected intra-DPAG enhanced escape latencies in the ETM, an anxyolitic effect, without altering inhibitory avoidance or LDM measurements. Finally, muscimol administered intra-basolateral amygdala impaired avoidance in the ETM and increased the TSLC in the LDM, revealing an anxyolitic effect in both tests, without altering the escape task. Taken together the obtained data seem to corroborate the dual role of 5-HT in anxiety, proposed by Deakin and Graeff (1991). At last, the importance of pre-exposure to the open arms of the LTE should be emphasized as a procedure capable of improving escape measurement.

Das Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, die Modulation der GABAergen synaptischen Transmission in den visuellen Schichten des Colliculus superior der Maus durch das Neurotrophin BDNF zu charakterisieren. Hierzu wurden bdnf+/+ und -/- Mäuse kurz vor und nach der Augenöffnung in einer die Morphologie erhaltenden Schnittpräparation elektrophysiologisch und molekularbiologisch untersucht. Das Fehlen von BDNF veränderte das Präparat hinsichtlich Neurondichte und -größe nicht. Ebenso blieben der Membranwiderstand und die Ganzzellkapazität unbeeinflusst von der chronischen Abwesenheit von BDNF. Im Gegensatz dazu zeigten sich deutliche funktionelle Defizite im Entladungsverhalten und in der GABAergen Hemmung. Durch Registrierung von Aktionspotentialen wurde demonstriert, dass BDNF für die Aufrechterhaltung der Netzwerkaktivität erforderlich ist. Durch Applikation eines GABAA-Rezeptor-Inhibitors konnte die Suppression der GABAergen Hemmung durch BDNF als zugrunde liegender Mechanismus aufgedeckt werden. Daraufhin durchgeführte Ganzzellableitungen bestätigten dies und legten einen postsynaptischen, TrkB-vermittelten Mechanismus der BDNF-Wirkung nahe. Es war möglich, den Einfluss der chronischen Abwesenheit von BDNF durch akute lokale Superfusion von BDNF vollständig aufzuheben. Die ausschließlich postsynaptische Blockade der PKC reichte aus, dies zu verhindern. Hierdurch wird unterstrichen, dass in diesem Präparat der Angriffspunkt von BDNF an der GABAergen Synapse auf der postsynaptischen Seite liegt. Um den genauen Wirkungsmechanismus von BDNF an der GABAergen Synapse zu beleuchten, wurde die mRNA-Expression der GABAA-Rezeptor-Untereinheiten alpha 1-3 untersucht. Diese ist in Anwesenheit von BDNF höher. Demzufolge sollte eine reduzierte Expression dieser Untereinheiten in bdnf-/- Tieren zu einer verringerten Rezeptoranzahl und somit zur Sättigung postsynaptischer Rezeptoren führen. Durch die Analyse von Amplitude und Kinetik GABAerger IPSC und die Applikation von Zolpidem wurde dies bestätigt. Demnach führt die Abwesenheit von BDNF zur Aufregulation der GABAergen Inhibition, obwohl die Rezeptorzahl in der Postsynapse wahrscheinlich niedriger ist. Als zentraler Mechanismus der akuten BDNF-Wirkung kommt deshalb am ehesten eine PKC-vermittelte Phosphorylierung und nachfolgende Veränderung des Desensitisierungsverhaltens in Betracht. Außerdem muss an eine Reduktion der Öffnungswahrscheinlichkeit oder der Leitfähigkeit des Rezeptors gedacht werden. Unmittelbar vor der Augenöffnung hatte die BDNF-Defizienz keinerlei Einfluss auf die GABAerge Hemmung. Es ist also davon auszugehen, dass BDNF im CS erst nach der Augenöffnung eine wesentliche Rolle in der Modulation der GABAergen Synapsen und damit in der Kontrolle der Netzwerkaktivität spielt. Dies steht in Einklang mit der Vorstellung, dass sowohl Translation und Freisetzung als auch Transport von BDNF durch neuronale Aktivität reguliert werden. Der Ablauf der neurotrophinergen Regulation im Colliculus superior stellt sich wie folgt dar: Durch Aktivation colliculärer Afferenzen wird BDNF vermehrt freigesetzt. BDNF reduziert nun zunächst über die Modulation von Rezeptoreigenschaften die GABAerge Hemmung und disinhibiert die Netzwerkaktivität. Längerfristig kommt es über eine vermehrte Expression von GABAA-Rezeptor-Untereinheiten zum Anstieg der Rezeptorzahl, damit zur Wiederherstellung der GABAergen Hemmung und letztlich zu einer Reduktion der Netzwerkaktivität. BDNF ist also in der kritischen Zeitperiode der Augenöffnung, wenn das Mustersehen einsetzt, ein wichtiger Faktor in der Regulation neuronaler Aktivität. / The aim of the study was to characterise the influence of the neurotrophin BDNF on the GABAergic synaptic transmission in the visual layers of the mouse superior colliculus. Acute slices prepared from bdnf+/+ and -/- mice shortly before and after eye opening were employed in the experiments. The absence of BDNF altered neither the density or size of neurons nor their membrane resistance or whole cell capacity. However, registration of action potentials revealed a decreased firing rate in the absence of BDNF. Stronger disinhibition induced by application of a GABAA receptor blocker suggested an enhanced GABAergic inhibition as an underlying mechanism. This assumption was confirmed by performing whole cell experiments. Further analysis indicated a postsynaptic enhancement of GABAergic synaptic transmission in the absence of BDNF. In bdnf+/+ slices, blockade of BDNF signalling through the TrkB receptor strengthened GABAergic synaptic transmission. Contrariwise, superfusion of exogenous BDNF in bdnf-/- suppressed GABAergic synaptic transmission. An exclusively postsynaptic block of the PKC abolished the effect of BDNF application. Therefore, a BDNF induced, TrkB mediated, PKC dependent suppression of the GABAergic synaptic transmission at the postsynaptic site can be assumed. To further elucidate the mechanism of BDNF action the expression of the GABAA receptor subunits alpha 1-3 mRNA was studied. In the presence of BDNF an elevated expression was observed. A lower expression of these subunits in bdnf-/- slices could result in a reduced number of GABAA receptors. During synaptic transmission they may become saturated. Two observations support this idea: In bdnf-/- slices application of Zolpidem does not induce an increase of GABAergic IPSC amplitude as present in bdnf+/+ slices. Amplitude and decay kinetics of GABAergic IPSCs correlate in bdnf-/- but not +/+ slices. Therefore, absence of BDNF may strengthen GABAergic synaptic transmission although mediated by a reduced number of postsynaptic receptors. A BDNF induced PKC dependent receptor phosphorylation followed by a change in receptor desensitisation is most likely the underlying mechanism. Nevertheless, a reduction of the receptor opening probability or a reduced receptor conductance have to be considered as well. Shortly before eye opening BDNF deficiency had no impact on GABAergic inhibition. In accordance with the general idea that expression and release of BDNF is activity dependent, this finding suggests that BDNF controls network activity by modulating GABAergic synaptic transmission only after eye opening. Taken together, the following sequence of BDNF action in the superior colliculus during eye opening can be proposed: Activation of collicular inputs triggers an increased BDNF release. BDNF suppresses GABAergic synaptic transmission leading to a disinhibition of network activity. Later, the increased expression of GABAA receptor subunits by prolonged BDNF release results in an increased GABAA receptor number, the recovery of the GABAergic inhibition and finally a gently tuned network activity. In summary, BDNF constitutes a major regulator of neuronal activity in the critical period of eye opening marking the transition to pattern vision.

A ivermectina é uma lactona macrocíclica utilizada para o tratamento de parasitoses na espécie humana e amplamente empregada em medicina veterinária como endectocida. Em mamíferos, diversas evidências indicam que as lactonas macrocíclicas interagem com canais de cloro mediados pelo ácido gama-aminobutírico (GABA). Sabe-se que o sistema GABAérgico está envolvido com a manifestação do comportamento sexual. Assim, no presente trabalho foram estudados, em ratos, os efeitos da ivermectina na coordenação motora, na motivação e no desempenho sexual de machos, bem como no comportamento sexual de fêmeas; além disso, avaliaram-se os níveis séricos de testosterona e as concentrações de diferentes neurotransmissores e seus metabólitos no hipotálamo e estriado, áreas do sistema nervoso central relacionadas, respectivamente, com o comportamento sexual e atividade motora. No presente estudo foram usadas as doses de 0,2 e 1,0 mg/kg, por via intraperitoneal, de uma formulação comercial de ivermectina; estas doses foram escolhidas considerando que a primeira é a dose usualmente empregada terapeuticamente e a segunda baseada em achados prévios que mostraram interferência no comportamento sexual de ratos machos. Os resultados mostraram que a administração de ivermectina em ratos: promoveu prejuízo na coordenação motora de machos; não interferiu na motivação sexual e na ereção peniana de machos; prejudicou o comportamento sexual de ratas; não alterou o peso relativo dos testículos, epidídimos, próstata e vesícula seminal, porém aumentou o peso relativo do fígado; não alterou o índice gonadossomático de machos, bem como não foram observadas alterações no estudo histopatológico dos diferentes órgãos; reduziu os níveis séricos de testosterona de machos; diminuiu os níveis de GABA hipotalâmico e estriatal, bem como reduziu a atividade dos sistemas serotoninérgico e dopaminérgico hipotalâmicos e, no estriado, reduziu a atividade do sistema dopaminérgico. Os resultados foram discutidos considerando a interferência da ivermectina nos sistemas de neurotransmissores central. / Ivermectin is a macrocyclic lactone used for the treatment of parasitic infections in humans and widely used in veterinary medicine as endectocide. In mammals, a number of evidence indicate that interact with the macrocyclic lactones chloride channels mediated by gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). It is known that the GABAergic system is involved in the manifestation of sexual behavior. Thus, in the present work were studied in rats, the effects of ivermectin on motor coordination, motivation and sexual performance of males and females in sexual behavior; furthermore, evaluated the serum levels of testosterone and different concentrations of neurotransmitters and their metabolites in the hypothalamus and striatum areas of the central nervous system related, respectively, sexual behavior and motor activity. In the present study doses of 0.2 and 1.0 mg / kg were used, intraperitoneally, a commercial formulation of ivermectin; these doses were chosen considering that the first dose is usually employed therapeutically and the second based on previous findings have shown that interference with sexual behavior of male rats. The results showed that administration of ivermectin in rats: impairment in motor coordination promoted male; did not interfere on the sexual motivation and the penile erection in male; impaired sexual behavior of female rats; did not alter the relative weight of the testes, epididymis, prostate and seminal vesicles, but increased the relative liver weight; did not alter the gonadosomatic index (GSI) of males and no changes were observed in the histopathological study of different organs; reduced serum testosterone levels of male; decreased levels of hypothalamic and striatal GABA and reduced the activity of the serotonergic and dopaminergic systems hypothalamic and the, reduced the activity of the dopaminergic system striatal. The results were discussed considering the interference of ivermectin in central neurotransmission systems.