This dissertation is an analysis of observations among, and interviews with, Romanian and Swedish employees at a Swedish development aid project in Romania. The aim has been to study the categories of ‘humanity’: how the notions of the ‘human(e)’ and the ‘inhuman(e)’ were created in the context of the project. Further, the aim of the thesis has been to connect the relations in everyday life as it develops in an aid project to the social and societal processes of change in today’s Europe. Chapter 1 introduces the theoretical and methodological frameworks of the study. Chapter 2 analyses media representations of institutionalized children in Romania, and describes the development aid in Romania. Chapter 3 describes and analyses the practical work with the children in the everyday life of the project. Chapter 4 focuses on the locally employed project staff, and their adoption of a ‘more human(e)’ identity through working with the Swedish NGO. Chapter 5 analyses how the construction of difference took place in the everyday life of the development aid project. Chapter 6 analyses the development aid as exchange of gifts and applies models of analysis of social work with the so-called deserving and undeserving clients. Chapter 7 is a concluding chapter. The construction of the ‘human(e)’ and its opposite, the ‘inhuman(e)’, could be found on three levels. These categories were used in reference to: (1) the children, the sick elderly and the poor families that were the clients of the aid project and were expected to be ‘humanized’ in the course of project implementation; (2) the Romanians who were employed by the Swedish organization and who were to be humanized through their work and through learning Western views on what the human being is; and (3) by implication, the whole Romanian society and all the Romanians who were also to be ‘humanized’ through the intervention of the Western NGOs.

The thesis identifies and discusses some fundamental changes that took place during the middle neolithic period in Sweden, with the introduction of the Boat Axe Culture. The possibility of intrepreting the Corded Ware Cultures by way of networks, identified through the regional designes of battle axes, are proposed. With the aid of a reconsideration of the typology of the Swedish boat axes, ethnographic examples of gift-exchanges, and a theoretical reappraisal of the implications of archaeological praxis for prehistorc life-worlds, new possibillities for interpreting the changing role of such prestige items as the boat-axes are presented. A new chronological scheme is also presented for the Swedish boat axes, with a tripartite division of the latter middle neolithic into MN BI-III. The value of the boat axe is further considered to be explicable only in terms of a prestige item, dependent on a system of exchange for its continual valuation. Central to this discussion is the relationship between value and exchange. Several regions within the Swedish Boat Axe Culture are identified, and the boat axes in two of these regions in the southern part of the Mälar valley are thoroughly examined. It is shown that during the cours of the Boat Axe period, the emphasis gradually changed from a regional to an intra-regional focus concerning the development of types and special designes of the boat axes. Identified similarities and dissimilarities of contemporary boat axes within and between regions are explained as a result of a parallel change in gift exchanges, from a regional focus to an intra-regional focus. An hierarchical ordering of the latter middle neolithic soceity is also identified, where only a portion of the boat-axes were selected as burial gifts. This development is chartered onto the broader neolithic development in Sweden, with special focus on the role of prestige items such as battle axes. A fundamental change is identified as taking place during the Boat Axe period, when the full implications of a prestige economy were implemented and the major strategies for power settled on the inter-regional level.

數世紀以來，《威尼斯商人》(The Merchant of Venice, 1596-1598)的批評總聚焦在「猶太人問題」(the Jewish question) 與「女人問題」(the woman question) 上：劇中放高利貸的夏洛 (Shylock) 體現了猶太人的原型，而富有、機智的波黠 (Portia) 則是強勢女性的代表。然而，這種閱讀方式將兩個問題分開處理，忽略了兩者在劇中密切的關聯，僅只以審判一景聯繫兩個角色所代表的問題。 　　本論文嘗試以「禮物交換」(gift exchange) 重新閱讀《威尼斯商人》。牟斯 (Marcel Mauss) 的著作《禮物》(The Gift, 1925) 初步定義原始社會中的交換行為與其涵意，奠定了禮物研究的基礎。禮物交換所建構的社會關係複雜多變，因此，除牟斯外，本論文亦援引佳寶 (Jacques T. Godbout) 與楊 (Iris Marion Young) 的理論，以期透視《威尼斯商人》中的角色在禮物交換之下的互動與劇情發展。 　　根據喜福特 (Alan D. Schrift) 所言，禮物描繪了「主體間的互動」(intersubjective interaction)。立基於此概念，並以上述等人的理論為架構，本論文由三個面向逐步探討《威尼斯商人》中基督男性的「自我」(self) 與猶太／女性「他者」(other) 間的禮物交換：（一）禮物交換的基礎；（二）禮物交換的聯繫與風險；（三）非對稱交換關係與重建關係。劇中安東尼 (Antonio) 與巴薩紐 (Bassanio) 的友情為禮物交換的基礎，進一步展現禮物特色，牽連／牽絆夏洛與波黠，發揮禮物效應，帶出多重「非對稱」(asymmetry) 的要素，終致重建四人的關係。 / For centuries, the Jewish question and the woman question have always been the salient concerns for criticisms of The Merchant of Venice (1596-1598): whereas Shylock the usurer embodies a Jewish archetype, Portia the clever heiress presents a powerful female figure. Nevertheless, treating the Jewish question and the woman question separately, this kind of reading ignores the close relationship between the two in the play, and connects them loosely only with the trial scene. This thesis reads The Merchant of Venice in the perspective of gift exchange. Founding the studies of the gift, Marcel Mauss’s The Gift (1925) firstly defines the reciprocity and the significance of gift exchange in archaic societies. Since social relationship established by gift exchange is subject to change, this thesis also draws on Jacques T. Godbout’s and Iris Marion Young’s theories to probe into the interaction of characters and the movement of The Merchant of Venice. According to Alan D. Schrift, the gift depicts “intersubjective interaction” (18). Based on this concept and structured with the above theories, the thesis examines gift exchange between the Christian male “self” and its Jewish/female other in The Merchant of Venice step by step in three dimensions: (1) the basis of gift exchange; (2) bond and risk in gift exchange; (3) asymmetrical reciprocity and reestablished relation. In the play, gift exchange brings its effect of bond and feature of asymmetry into full play. Grounded on the friendship between Antonio and Bassanio, gift exchange links/restrains Shylock and Portia, and reestablishes the characters’ relationships as a result.

The theme of gift has in recent years been subject to considerable commentary in diverse disciplines including philosophy, anthropology, sociology, religious studies and literary criticism. The vast majority of these studies focus on how or whether gift can be differentiated from exchange. In this dissertation I maintain that gift is a form of giving and receiving that is distinct from exchange or commerce, and that it need not create an obligation to return or reciprocate. This gift is given unilaterally to the need of the other and results in relatedness rather than indebtedness. This essay considers the characteristics of exchange and of gift, then reviews the thought of five writers on giving/receiving and reciprocation. This is followed by an overview of the gift theme in African Traditional Religion and the Judaic and Christian traditions, and a concluding chapter summarising thoughts on gift and self-interest, sharing, need, and gratitude. / Religious Studies and Arabic / M.A.(Religious Studies)

To the present-day reader texts are widely available. However, to the early modern reader this access was limited. While book ownership increased in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, it was not universal – even libraries were both limited in their collections and exclusive to the communities they served. Libraries were to be found all over Early Modern England, from city libraries to town subscription libraries. One could gain access to books but these collections were often rather limited in the variety and number of books they offered. Undoubtedly many libraries purchased books for their collections, but frequently books were also given to them by benefactors. One fine example of a community library which reflects its readers and members is the library of St Peter’s Cathedral, York Minster. York Minister library owes its existence to traceable benefactors and donations. One could study the collection to give an insight into reading practices and interests of the Early Modern Period. But in doing so we fall foul of becoming static and failing to develop the historiography of Book History. Instead, we can re-evaluate this collection by drawing from the old focus of genres but shifting this focus and approach the collection from a different path: a material path. These books resonate value. Not solely due to their genres and subject matter, but their value is also generated in how the books became accessible, through generosity and donation. As donations from benefactors these books should not be considered solely as works of literature, but as gifts from one agent to another. Gifts given with both intention and purpose.

Quels sont les « savoirs ancestraux » des « peuples et nations indigènes » reconnus par la Constitution adoptée par l'Équateur en 1998? L’étude ethnographique d’une communauté kayambi permet de mieux comprendre comment la dynamique des mutations à l’œuvre dans cette société porte et est portée par la parole mythique et rituelle. Elle montre comment, d’années en années, à la fin juin, les rituels associés à la fête de San Pedro se perpétuent en dépit des changements qui affectent les conditions de vie des Kayambi et pourquoi l’Aya-Uma, figure centrale de ces rituels et synthèse de l'histoire de l'imaginaire kayambi, n'est pas qu'une figure du patrimoine. La parole mythique recueillie auprès des Kayambi lors de très nombreux entretiens a permis de reconstituer un système associant aussi bien les thèmes introduits par l’évangélisation que ceux de l’univers aquatique des Apus ou les éléments de la faune et de la flore. Cette parole ambivalente s’est révélée peuplée de figures elles-mêmes ambivalentes telles que la Chificha, le Condor, Sanson, ou le Chisilongo.Lorsque les Kayambi disent leurs mythes et performent leurs rites ils produisent, pour leur propre communauté, l’expression de leur réalité du moment. Ce faisant ils interprètent leur propre histoire en tant que groupe social communautaire et, parce qu’ils sont en contact avec lui, celle du groupe social plus large que constitue l’Equateur. Les institutions kayambi, à la fois héritage des contraintes coloniales et éléments, constamment réinventés, de l’organisation sociale, constituent un ensemble dont chaque composante ne peut fonctionner isolément.Les paroles mythiques et rituelles des Kayambi portent un ensemble de savoirs correspondant à une médiation sociopolitique collective dont les actes ne se réduisent pas aux moments rituels mais s’étendent à l’ensemble des relations. La préservation de ces savoirs, condition de survie du système social kayambi, repose sur la faculté de transmettre les récits mythiques et d’accomplir les rites. / What are the "traditional knowledge" of the "indigenous peoples and nations" recognized by the 1998 Ecuador Constitution?The ethnographic study of a Kayambi community allows to understand how the dynamics of the changes is carried through mythical and ritual speech. Year after year, in late June, the rituals associated with the festival of San Pedro are perpetuated despite changes that affect the lives and situation of the Kayambi and why Aya-Uma, the central figure of these rituals and a representational synthesis of the history of the Kayambi, and not only a simple patrimonial figure.Mythical speech collected from Kayambi during interviews lends to the reconstruction of a complexe system combining themes introduced by evangelization and the underwater world of the Apus, or elements of fauna and flora. This ambivalent speech is populated by ambivalent figures such as Chificha, Condor, Sanson or Chisilongo.When Kayambi speak their myths and perform their rites they express the reality of the moment for their own community. In so doing they interpret not only their own history, as a social group but the wider social group they are in contact with, that is the nation of Ecuador itself. The Kayambi institutions, both legacy of the colonial coercive order and restructuring elements, constantly reinvent kayambi social organization as a set. They cannot be considered in isolation.Mythical and ritual expressionss should be considered as complementary knowledges acting as a socio-political mediation. Their acts are not confined to ritual moments but extend to all social relations. Thus the preservation of this knowledge is a survival condition of Kayambi social system.

Soziale Medien scheinen in der heutigen Zeit ein breit untersuchtes Phänomen zu sein, auch über die Verhaltensweisen innerhalb der Netwoks lassen sich eine Menge vorwiegend quantifizierender Analysen finden. Jedoch existieren kaum kultursoziologische Erklärungen über die Kalküle und Motive der Nutzer, erst recht nicht über die Wirkungen der Systemvorgaben von Facebook & Co. In dieser Diplomarbeit soll ein erster Versuch aufgezeigt werden, die Verhaltensweisen in sozialen Netzwerken zu erforschen, indem die Handlungsweisen, -zwänge und -kalküle im Social-Networking auf der Grundlage empirisch erhobener Daten untersucht werden. Dabei werden die konzeptionellen Fragestellungen an das soziale Handeln aus dem Gabentauschkonzept von Marcel Mauss heraus entwickelt. Die Untersuchung richtet sich hierbei erstens an die Motive der Nutzer, wie Beziehungen, Selbstdarstellung/Identität und Status. Zum zweiten werden die typischen Charakteristiken, die sich aus den Handlungserwartungen und Handlungsmuster ergeben, herausgestellt und anhand der Gabentauschelemente Geben, Nehmen und Erwidern untersucht. Ein dritter Aspekt bezieht sich auf die konkreten Tauschelemente, die innerhalb der Netzwerke durch einen gegenseitigen Austausch zirkulieren und als Gaben funktionieren. Schließlich werden auch die Wirkungsweisen verschiedener Systemvorgaben, wie die Kommentarfunktion oder die Funktion, ein „Gefällt mir“ zu vergeben, und welche Rolle sie für das Verhalten innerhalb der sozialen Netzwerke spielen, untersucht.:1. Einführung 1.1. Ist Social-Networking ein Gabentausch? – Fragestellung und Problembeschreibung I. Das theoretische Konzept – Social-Networking aus dem Blickwinkel der Gabentauschtheorie 2. Theoretische Vorklärungen 6 2.1. Marcel Mauss’ Gabentauschtheorie 2.2. Soziale Netzwerke und Social-Networking-Systems 2.3. Das konkrete Handlungsfeld 3. Das Networking als Gabentausch – Theoretische Vergleichsgrundlagen 3.1. Vergleichsdimensionen . 3.2. Das Networking – ein Gabentausch? – Zwischenresümee II. Empirische Erfassung und Strukturanalyse von Verhaltensweisen in Social-Networking-Systems 4. Datengewinnungs- und Untersuchungsinstrumente 4.1. Soziologische Verortung in der Qualitativen Sozialforschung 4.2. Datengewinnungs- und Untersuchungsinstrumente 4.2.1. Die wissenschaftliche Beobachtung 4.2.2. Qualitative Interviews 5. Datenerhebung und Auswertung – Forschungsprozess 5.1. Untersuchungsgegenstände und der Zugang zum Feld 5.2. Durchführung, Datenfixierung und Darstellung der erhobenen Daten 5.3. Qualitative Strukturanalyse – Datenaufbereitung 5.4. Zwischenresümee III.Das Networking – Ein Gabentausch? 6. Auswertung, Interpretation und Beispielfälle 6.1. Motive des Austausches 6.2. Gegenstände des Austausches 6.3. Tauschverhalten – Geben, Nehmen und Erwidern 7. Zusammenfassung und Reflexion 7.1. Zusammenfassung 7.2. Reflexion und Ausblick A. Abbildungsverzeichnis B. Literaturverzeichnis C. Anlageverzeichnis D. Anlagen E. Selbstständigkeitserklärung / Social media seem to be a widely studied phenomenon in modern times, there are also a number of predominantly quantifying analyzes of behaviors within netwoks. However, there are no cultural-sociological explanations about the calculi and motives of users, certainly not about the effects of the system specifications of Facebook & Co. In this work, therefore, a first attempt will be made to explore the behavior in social networks, by investigating the behaviors, constraints and calculi in social networking, based on empirically collected data. In the process, the conceptual questions of social action are developed out of the gift exchange concept of Marcel Mauss. First of all, the investigation is based on the users' motives, such as relationships, self-presentation / identity and status. Second, the typical characteristics that result from the action expectations and patterns of action, exposed and based on the exchange elements giving, taking and responding are examined. A third aspect refers to the concrete elements of exchange that circulate within the networks through a mutual exchange and function as gifts. Finally, the effects of various system requirements are also examined, such as the commentary function or the function of 'liking'.:1. Einführung 1.1. Ist Social-Networking ein Gabentausch? – Fragestellung und Problembeschreibung I. Das theoretische Konzept – Social-Networking aus dem Blickwinkel der Gabentauschtheorie 2. Theoretische Vorklärungen 6 2.1. Marcel Mauss’ Gabentauschtheorie 2.2. Soziale Netzwerke und Social-Networking-Systems 2.3. Das konkrete Handlungsfeld 3. Das Networking als Gabentausch – Theoretische Vergleichsgrundlagen 3.1. Vergleichsdimensionen . 3.2. Das Networking – ein Gabentausch? – Zwischenresümee II. Empirische Erfassung und Strukturanalyse von Verhaltensweisen in Social-Networking-Systems 4. Datengewinnungs- und Untersuchungsinstrumente 4.1. Soziologische Verortung in der Qualitativen Sozialforschung 4.2. Datengewinnungs- und Untersuchungsinstrumente 4.2.1. Die wissenschaftliche Beobachtung 4.2.2. Qualitative Interviews 5. Datenerhebung und Auswertung – Forschungsprozess 5.1. Untersuchungsgegenstände und der Zugang zum Feld 5.2. Durchführung, Datenfixierung und Darstellung der erhobenen Daten 5.3. Qualitative Strukturanalyse – Datenaufbereitung 5.4. Zwischenresümee III.Das Networking – Ein Gabentausch? 6. Auswertung, Interpretation und Beispielfälle 6.1. Motive des Austausches 6.2. Gegenstände des Austausches 6.3. Tauschverhalten – Geben, Nehmen und Erwidern 7. Zusammenfassung und Reflexion 7.1. Zusammenfassung 7.2. Reflexion und Ausblick A. Abbildungsverzeichnis B. Literaturverzeichnis C. Anlageverzeichnis D. Anlagen E. Selbstständigkeitserklärung

Si pendant de nombreuses décennies, la créativité a été décrite comme une activité solitaire, en référence à des caractéristiques individuelles possédées par certains individus, il est aujourd’hui établi que les relations jouent un rôle critique dans la création de connaissances (Perry-Smith, 2006). Néanmoins, en dépit de leur importance, les échanges interpersonnels ont reçu relativement peu d’attention en comparaison d’autres ressources utiles au processus créatif. Ce travail doctoral est donc consacré à l’étude du rôle des interactions sociales dans la dynamique du processus créatif. Les cadres théoriques mobilisés sont la théorie de la complexité et la théorie de l’échange social. Notre recherche empirique a été réalisée auprès de chercheurs de l’industrie dont le cœur de la mission est de nature inventive. Cette thèse est composée de trois articles, qui répondent à la question de recherche suivante : Dans quelle mesure et de quelle manière les interactions sociales jouent-elles un rôle dans le processus créatif ? Notre contribution théorique consiste à (1) apporter une définition plurielle de la créativité ; (2) mettre en évidence les différentes ressources sociales mobilisées, qui façonnent un processus créatif dynamique en deux méta-étapes (émergence et amplification des idées) ; (3) décrire trois formes d’échange social, sous-tendues par différentes logiques de réciprocité, qui jouent un rôle important au cours du processus créatif. Cette thèse souligne le rôle des interactions sociales dans le processus créatif et toute l’importance des moments de socialisation dans la vie des organisations qui souhaitent développer la créativité de leurs salariés / Although for many decades creativity has been described as a solitary activity that refers to individual characteristics possessed by certain individuals, today it has been established that relationships play a crucial role in the creation of knowledge (Perry-Smith, 2006). Nevertheless, despite their importance, interpersonal exchanges have received relatively little attention compared to other resources useful to the creative process (Bouty, 2000). This doctoral study is therefore devoted to examining the role of social interactions in the creative process. The theoretical framework draws on literature in the fields of complexity theory and social exchange. The empirical research was carried out among industrial researchers whose main mission is creative in nature. The thesis is composed of three articles, each of which treats a dimension of the overall research question: To what extent and in which ways do social interactions influence the creative process?The research contributes to theory building by (1) providing a plural definition of creativity; (2) highlighting the different social resources that researchers draw on and building a dynamic creative process divided into two meta-stages (emergence of ideas and their amplification); and (3) describing three forms of social exchange, underpinned by different logics of reciprocity that play an important role during the creative process.Overall, this thesis points out the importance of social interactions in the creative process and the full importance of moments of socialization within organizations wishing to develop their employees’ creativity

The shifting topography of contemporary Japanese society is engendering a significant reorientation of men’s family relations. However, exactly how Japanese men are adapting to these broad-based trends, including parent-child relations, demographics, marriage norms, care provision, residential choices, and gender roles, as well as in the decline of Confucian worldviews, remains relatively obscure. In this dissertation, I explore men’s everyday practices underpinning their family relations as husbands, fathers, sons-in-law, and grandfathers. I conducted ethnographic fieldwork in the summers of 2013 and 2014 in Hyogo, through narrative interviews and participant-observation. I find husbands’ view of their wives transitioning from having a culturally prescribed duty to perform domestic matters to simply having responsibility for domestic matters. This opens up space for negotiation within married couples, with my informants providing what I refer to as additional help, which offers new insight into charting the evolution of hegemonic masculinity. I evidence relatedness founded on exchange as an approach to understand relations across the extended family, which importantly involves additional help, financial resources, and intimacy. I underscore how men selectively seek intimacy in some family relations, notably as fathers and grandfathers. Provision of additional help and seeking of intimacy lead to men’s (re)construction of masculinities differing across family relations, with an important reason for men to select their practices so as to craft their family relations is to address their sense of well-being. Further, the pattern of men’s family relations reveals the emergence of substantially novel sons-in-law relations, as compared to that found in ie patriarchal norms. This evidence suggests a fundamental shift from a vertically-dominated set of family relations, as in the ie household, to a more horizontal, fluid set of relations across the extended family.

Asymmetrische Beziehungen im antiken Griechenland werden in der Literatur mit „Klientel“ oder „Patronage“ beschrieben. Dabei wird eine schichtübergreifende Asymmetrie vorausgesetzt, und diese Beziehungen werden vor allem als (instrumentelle) Austauschverhältnisse verstanden. Die Studie argumentiert, dass schichtübergreifende Bindungen auszuschließen sind, und untersucht stattdessen inneraristokratische asymmetrische Beziehungen im Hinblick auf performative, symbolische und instrumentelle Gehalte im Kontext einer stratifizierten Gesellschaftsordnung. In performativer Hinsicht orientiert sich die Zulassung zur Oberschichteninteraktion an der gesellschaftlichen Differenzierung und reproduziert diese damit. Wer aus ökonomischen Gründen seinen Status verliert, wird aus den Verkehrskreisen der Oberschicht ausgeschlossen, umgekehrt finden Aufsteiger leicht Aufnahme in die Aristokratie. Dem entspricht in symbolischer Hinsicht, dass Nahbeziehungen wesentlich zur Statusmanifestation der Aristokraten beitragen und aus diesem Grunde angestrebt werden. Aufrichtigkeit, Offenheit und wechselseitige Unterstützung werden zwar erwartet, diese Erwartungen werden aber häufig enttäuscht. In instrumenteller Hinsicht wird die Unterstützung durch asymmetrische Beziehungen als wichtiger, aber nicht zwingend entscheidender Einflussfaktor gesehen. In archaischer Zeit konnten die Beziehungspartner die Tyrannisaspiranten im Kampf mit den Konkurrenten unterstützen und durch Agitation Einfluss auf den Demos nehmen. In der Klassik verlegte sich die agitatorische Unterstützung in Friedensphasen in die rechtlichen und politischen Institutionen, während im Kontext der Stasis auch gewaltsame Aktionen gegen die konkurrierenden Aristokraten zu den typischen Einsatzmöglichkeiten gehörten. Inneraristokratische asymmetrische Nahbeziehungen erscheinen damit als wesentliches Strukturmerkmal der stratifizierten Gesellschaft und der politischen Ordnung. / Asymmetrical relationships in ancient Greece are described in the literature as “clientage” or “patronage”. Thereby, a cross-class asymmetry is assumed, and these relations are understood primarily as (instrumental) exchange relations. This study argues that cross-class ties are to be excluded, and instead examines intra-aristocratic asymmetrical relations in terms of their performative, symbolic, and instrumental contents in the context of a stratified social order. In performative terms, admission to upper-class interaction is oriented toward and thus reproduces social differentiation. Those who lose their status for economic reasons are excluded from the intercourse circles of the upper class; conversely, upwardly mobile people easily find admission to the aristocracy. In symbolic terms, this corresponds to the fact that personal relationships contribute significantly to the aristocrats’ manifestation of status and are sought for this reason. Sincerity, openness, and mutual support are expected, but these expectations are often disappointed. In instrumental terms, support through asymmetrical relationships is seen as an important, but not necessarily decisive, influencing factor. In archaic times, relational partners could support the aspirants to tyranny in their struggle with rivals and influence the demos through agitation. In the classical period, agitational support shifted to legal and political institutions during periods of peace, while in the context of stasis, violent action against competing aristocrats was also among the typical uses. Intra-aristocratic asymmetrical relations thus appear as an essential structural feature of stratified society and the political order.