L’hydrogène liquide est un ergol utilisé en complément de l’oxygène liquide pour la propulsion de nombreux lanceurs en particulier ceux de la famille Ariane. Cependant, sa dangerosité interdit la réalisation d’essais, en particulier vibratoires, sur des réservoirs remplis. Cette thèse explore une piste d’étude permettant de réaliser ces essais vibratoires sur le réservoir rempli d’un matériau de substitution : un ensemble de billes pré-contraintes. L’objectif est d’obtenir un comportement modal similaire en termes de modes et de fréquences propres à celui du réservoir rempli d’hydrogène liquide pour l’étude des premiers modes. Pour répondre à cet objectif, cette étude est développée en deux parties. Dans la première partie, une approche analytique basée sur une méthode par équivalences fréquentielles est détaillée. Après avoir présenté les grandes lignes de la méthodologie utilisée et l’ensemble des modèles développés, la méthodologie est appliquée au cas étudié expérimentalement de manière à mettre en évidence l’influence des différents paramètres et de proposer une première méthode pour choisir un jeu de billes adapté. La seconde partie, traite principalement des aspects expérimentaux et numériques. Après avoir détaillé la caractérisation des billes utilisées, le montage expérimental conçu et réalisé pour effectuer des essais vibratoires sur un réservoir rempli de billes pré-contraintes est présenté. Les différents résultats obtenus avec ce montage sont étudiés au regard de l’approche analytique, mais aussi de modèles numériques utilisant des éléments-discrets et des éléments-finis. / Liquid hydrogen is a propellant alternatively used with liquid oxygen for the propulsion of many launchers, especially those of the Ariane family. However, its dangerousness prohibits vibration tests on filled tank. The aim of this PHD is to explore the possibility to carry out such vibration tests by filling these tanks with a substitute material : a set of pre-stressed balls. As further argued and developed in the report, the objective is to obtain a modal behavior similar in term of mode shapes and natural frequencies to those of the tank filled with liquid hydrogen for the first modes. In the first part, an analytical approach based on a method using frequency equivalences is detailed. After presenting the outlines of the methodology used and all the models developed, the methodology is applied to the experimentally studied case in order to highlight the influence of the different parameters as well as then to propose a first method to choose a set of well adapted balls. The second part deals mainly with experimental and numerical aspects. Firstly, the balls used in the thesis are characterized. Then, the experimental set-up designed and realized to carry out vibration tests on a tank filled with pre-stressed balls is presented. The different results obtained are compared with both analytical results and numerical based on discrete-elements and finite-elements results.

Key factors that influence the design of paved and unpaved roads are the strength and stiffness of the pavement layers. Among other factors, the strength of pavements depends on the thickness and quality of the aggregates used in the pavement base layer. In India and many other countries, there is a high demand for good quality aggregates and the availability of aggregate resources is limited. There is a need for the development of sustainable construction methods which can handle aggregate requirements with least available resources and provide good performance. Hence it is imperative to strive for alternatives to achieve improved quality of pavements using supplementary potential materials and methods. The strength of pavement increases with increase in the thickness of the base which has a direct implication on construction cost whereas decreasing the thickness of the base makes it weak which results in low load bearing capacity especially for unpaved roads. The use of different types of geosynthetics like geocell and geogrid are a potential and reliable solution for the lack of availability of aggregates and studies are conducted in this direction. To better understand the performance of any geosynthetically reinforced base layers, it is essential to characterize the pavement material by studying the behavior of these materials under static as well as repeated loading. For unpaved roads, the base layer, made of granular aggregates plays a crucial role in the reduction of permanent deformation of the pavements. The resilient modulus (Mr) of these materials is a key parameter for predicting the structural response of pavements and for characterizing materials in pavement design and evaluation. Usually, during the design of flexible pavements, pavement materials are treated as homogeneous and isotropic. The use of rollers in the field during pavement construction leads to a higher compaction of material in the vertical direction which introduces stress-induced anisotropy in the base material. The effect of stress-induced anisotropy on the properties of the granular material is studied and discussed in the first part of the research by conducting repeated load triaxial tests. Isotropic consolidated and anisotropically consolidated samples were prepared to investigate the behavior of base materials under stress induced anisotropic conditions. An additional axial load was applied on the isotropically consolidated sample to create anisotropically consolidated sample. The axial loading was provided such that the stress ratio (σ1/σ3), during anisotropic consolidation was kept constant for all the tests at different confining pressures. The effect of repeated loading on the permanent deformation and the resilient modulus for both isotropically and anisotropically consolidated samples, at different confining pressure and loading conditions, are discussed. The behavior of both anisotropically and isotropically consolidated samples has been explained using the record of the excess pore pressures generated during the experiments. The experimental studies show that the permanent strains measured in the vertical direction of the anisotropically consolidated samples are less compared to the results obtained for isotropically consolidated samples. The resilient moduli of the anisotropically consolidated samples were also observed to be higher than that of the isotropically consolidated sample. The study conducted on the pore pressure of both the samples explains better performance of the anisotropically consolidated samples. The studies showed that the isotropically consolidated samples showed higher pore pressures compared to the anisotropically consolidated specimens. Another factor which influences the resilient modulus of the pavement materials is the geosynthetic reinforcement. Geocell and geogrid reinforced triaxial samples were prepared to study the effect of reinforcement in the resilient modulus of the base materials. From the literature, it can be seen that most of the research in the triaxial testing equipment were carried out in the non-destructive range of confining pressure and deviatoric stress. Several studies have been conducted by the researchers to visualize the pavement response in the elastic range. However, the studies in the plastic creep range and incremental collapse range were highly limited. In the current study, testing is carried out on the triaxial samples for two different stress ranges. In the first sections, loading was applied in the elastic and elastic shakedown range as per AASTHO T-307. For various loading sequences, a comparative analysis has been done for the resilient modulus of the geogrid and geocell. In the next section, the loading was applied on the sample in the plastic shakedown range and incremental collapse range. The results of the permanent strains and resilient modulus of the sections are compared with the corresponding results of the unreinforced section. In the plastic shakedown and incremental collapse range also the permanent strains of reinforced samples were less than those observed in the unreinforced section. The performance of geosynthetically reinforced pavement layers can be better understood by studying the samples prepared under realistic field conditions. In the case of triaxial experiments the sample size is very less compared to the field conditions and the effect of other pavement layers on the performance of the base layers cannot be studied on triaxial samples. Samples were prepared in the laboratory by modeling the pavement sections in a cuboidal tank, in which different pavement layers are laid one over the other, and a static loading or repeated loading is applied to overcome the bottleneck of small sample size in the triaxial setup. The experiments were conducted on the unreinforced section; geocell reinforced section and geogrid reinforced section placed above strong and weak subgrade. The results of the study are examined regarding the resilient deformation, permanent deformation, pressure distribution and strain measurements for different thicknesses of base layers under repeated loading. The initial parts of the study present the results of experiments and analysis of the results to understand the behavior of geocell reinforced granular base during repeated loading. In this study, an attempt is made to understand the various factors which influence the behavior of geocell reinforced granular base under repeated loading by conducting plate load tests. The loads applied on the pavements are much higher than the standard axle loading used for the design of pavements. High pressure was applied on all the test sections to simulate these higher loading conditions in the field. The optimum width and height of the geocell to be provided, to get maximum reduction in permanent deformation is studied in detail. The effect of resilient deformation of reinforced and unreinforced base layers is quantified by calculating the resilient modulus of these layers. The studies showed that the geocell reinforcement was effective in reducing the permanent and resilient deformations of base layer when compared to the unreinforced samples. The resilient modulus calculated was higher for the reinforced sample with half of the thickness of the unreinforced sample. The effect of reinforcement in the stress distribution within the base layer is also studied by measuring the pressures at different depths of the base layer. The results showed that the pressure getting transferred to the subgrade level was much lower in the case of geocell reinforced base layer. The ultimate aim of any pavement design method is to reduce the distress in the subgrade level and thus leading to increased life of pavements. Pressures at the subgrade level for reinforced and unreinforced sections are studied in detail, the main parameter under study being the stress distribution angle, to investigate the distress in the subgrade level. It was observed that the geocell reinforced sample showed higher stress distribution angle when compared to its unreinforced counterpart. Another important factor that has to be studied is the strains at the subgrade level since it is the governing factor of causing rutting in the pavements. From the experiments conducted in the study, it was shown that the reinforcement is very effective in reducing the strains at the top of subgrades. The implications of the current study are brought out in terms of improved pavement performance as the carbon emission reductions. It is important to analyze the performance of reinforced section under realistic field conditions. To do that experiment were conducted on reinforced and unreinforced base layers placed on top of weak subgrade material. The study showed that the reinforcements are effective in reducing the deformations under weak subgrade conditions also but not as effective as it was under strong subgrade case. The experimental results were then validated with the two-dimensional mechanistic-empirical model for geocell reinforced unpaved roads for predicting the performance of pavements under a significant number of cycles. The modified permanent deformation model which incorporates the triaxial test results and strains measured directly from the base sections were used to model and validate. Plate load experiments were also conducted on base layers reinforced with geogrid to understand the behavior of these reinforced samples under repeated loading. Several factors like the width of the geogrid to be provided and the depth of placing the geogrid in the base layer were studied in detail to achieve maximum reduction in deformations. Permanent and resilient deformation studies were carried out for both reinforced and unreinforced sections of varying thicknesses, and a comparison was made to understand the effect of reinforcement. The geogrid reinforcement could effectively reduce the permanent and resilient deformations when compared to the unreinforced sections. A study was also carried out on the resilient modulus, which explained the better performance of the geogrid reinforced samples by showing higher resilient modulus for reinforced samples than the unreinforced specimens. The performance of the geogrid reinforced base layers was further verified by studying the pressure distribution at the subgrade level and by calculating the stress distribution angle corresponding to the reinforced and unreinforced samples. The strains at the subgrade level were also studied and compared with the unreinforced sample which showed a better performance of geogrid reinforced samples. The results from the strain gauges fixed in the geogrid were further used to model and validate the permanent deformation model. Experiments were conducted on geogrid-reinforced base layer placed above weak subgrade conditions. The results showed that the reinforcement was effective in reducing the deformations under weak subgrade conditions also. Apart from conducting the laboratory studies, experimental results were numerically modeled to accurately back-calculate the resilient moduli of the layers used in the study. 3D numerical modeling of the unreinforced and honeycomb shaped geocell reinforced layers were carried out using finite element package of ANSYS. The subgrade layer, geocell material, and infill material were modeled with different material models to match the real case scenario. The modeling was done for both static and repeated load conditions. The material properties were changed in a systematic fashion until the vertical deformations of the loading plate matched with the corresponding values measured during the experiment. The experimental study indicates that the geocell reinforcement distributes the load in the lateral direction to a relatively shallow depth when compared to the unreinforced section. Numerical modeling further strengthened the results of the experimental studies since the modeling results were in sync with the experimental data.

La prédiction de trajectoire de bloc et la conception de structures de protection sont deux des questions principales de l'ingénierie des chutes de pierres. La prédiction de la trajectoire d'un bloc dépend en grande partie des rebonds de ce bloc tandis que la conception de structures de protection, comme des remblais, est étroitement liée à la force d'impact sur le bloc.En se basant sur ce contexte, la thèse traite aussi bien de l'interaction entre un bloc et un milieu granulaire que des rebonds d'un bloc sur un milieu granulaire, en utilisant une modélisation numérique par la méthode des éléments discrets. L'objectif de la thèse est d'identifier et de mesurer les mécanismes qui contrôlent le rebond du bloc et le transfert de charge à l'intérieur du milieu impacté. Le contenu principal comprend trois parties: la modélisation DEM du processus d'impact, le rebond du bloc et le comportement micromécanique du milieu impacté.La loi de contact classique est utilisée pour modéliser le processus d'impact. Elle est mise en œuvre avec une résistance aux roulements pour considérer les effets de forme des particules et est calibrée par des tests triaxiaux quasi-statiques. Le bloc est modélisé par une sphère avec une vitesse d'incident tandis que le milieu est modélisé par un assemblage de particules sphériques poly-dispersées. La modélisation numérique de l'impact est validé en termes de force d'impact, de durée d'impact et de profondeur de pénétration par des expériences de la littérature.Le rebond du bloc et le processus de propagation d'énergie à l'intérieur du milieu impacté sont examinés ensemble. La résistance du milieu pendant l'impact est représentée par l'énergie de tension élastique. La résistance du milieu n'est pas constante car l'augmentation d'énergie de tension élastique est suivie par l'augmentation d'énergie cinétique, la dissipation d'énergie et par la diminution du nombre de coordination. L'occurrence du rebond du bloc obtenue avec des simulations 3D montre que trois régimes d'impact existent, ce qui est en accord avec les résultats de citet{Bourrier_2008}. De plus, la comparaison entre les diagrammes d'occurrence de rebond 2D et 3D montre que les positions et les formes des diagrammes d'occurrence de rebond changent en raison de résistances et de dissipations d'énergie différentes. En se basant sur les deux aspects de l'étude, la relation entre le rebond du bloc et la propagation d'énergie à l'intérieur du milieu est discutée.Le comportement micromécanique du système impacté est examiné en se focalisant sur les mécanismes des chaînes de force. Le réseau de chaînes de force dans le milieu impacté est caractérisé à partir des tensions entre les particules. L'objectif est d'identifier le rôle des chaînes de force dans la force d'impact sur le bloc et dans la microstructure du milieu. En étudiant la force d'impact sur le bloc avec des impacts sur des échantillons de grains de tailles différentes montre que l'échantillon composé de grands grains a une plus grande force d'impact, des chaînes de force plus longues comparées à l'épaisseur du milieu ainsi qu'un grand pourcentage de chaînes de force avec une longue durée de vie. De plus, l'étude de la distribution spatiale et temporelle des chaînes de force montre que la résistance du milieu pendant l'impact est portée par les particules des chaînes situées entre le bloc et la base du milieu impacté et que la propagation des chaînes de force dans la direction latérale joue un rôle secondaire. Enfin, l'étude des mécanismes du flambage des chaînes de force indique que, provoqués par les mouvements entre les particules de la chaîne, l'augmentation de nombre de flambages est liée à la diminution de la force d'impact sur le bloc ainsi qu'à l'augmentation de l'énergie cinétique et de la dissipation d'énergie à l'intérieur du milieu. / The prediction of boulder trajectory and the design of protection structures are particularly two main interests of rockfall engineering. The prediction of boulder trajectory largely depends on the bouncing of the boulder, and the design of protection structures, such as embankments, are closely related to the impact force on the boulder.Based on this background, the thesis deals with the interaction between a boulder and a granular medium as well as the bouncing of a boulder on a granular medium, through numerical modelling based on discrete element method. The objective of the thesis is to identify and quantify the mechanisms that governs the bouncing of boulder and the load transfer inside the impacted medium. The main contents include three parts: DEM modelling of the impact process, global bouncing of the boulder and micromechanical behaviour of the impacted medium.The classical contact law implemented with rolling resistance to consider particle shape effects calibrated based on quasi-static triaxial tests is used to model the dynamic impact process. The boulder is modelled as a single sphere with an incident velocity, the medium is modelled as an assembly composed of poly-disperse spherical particles. The numerical impact modelling is validated in terms of impact force, impact duration, penetration depth by experiments from literature.Bouncing of the boulder is investigated together with the energy propagation process inside the impacted medium. The strength of the medium during impact is represented by elastic strain energy, while the strength of the medium is not persistent since the increase of elastic strain energy is followed by the increase of kinetic energy and energy dissipation, as well as the decrease of the coordination number. Boulder's bouncing occurrence obtained based on 3D simulations shows that three impact regimes exist, which is consistent with the results of citet{Bourrier_2008}. In addition, comparison between 2D and 3D bouncing occurrence diagrams shows that the positions and shapes of bouncing occurrence diagrams shift due to the different strength and energy dissipation properties. Based on the two aspects of investigations, the relation between the bouncing of the boulder and the energy propagation inside the medium is discussed.The micromechanical behaviour of the impacted system is investigated by focusing on force chain mechanisms. The force chain network in the impacted medium is characterized based on particle stress information. The aim is to find the role of force chains in the strength and the microstructure of the medium. Investigations of the impact force on the boulder by impacting samples composed of different grain sizes shows that sample composed of big grains resulting in a larger impact force, longer force chains compared with the medium thickness, and large percentage of long age force chains. In addition, the spatial and temporal distribution of force chains are investigated and the results show that the strength of the medium under impact is built by chain particles located between the boulder and the bottom boundary, and the force chain propagation in the lateral direction of the medium plays a secondary role. Moreover, the investigation of force chain buckling mechanisms indicates that, triggered by the relative movements between the chain particles, the increase of buckling number is related to the decrease of impact force on the boulder as well as the increase of kinetic energy and energy dissipation inside the medium.

Les matériaux granulaires se composent de grains solides et d’un constituant remplissant les pores, tel qu'un fluide ou une matrice solide. Les grains interagissent au travers de répulsions élastiques, auxquelles s’ajoutent des mécanismes de friction, d’adhérence et d'autres forces surfaciques. La sollicitation externe conduit à la déformation des grains ainsi qu’à des réarrangements de particules. Les déformations des milieux granulaires sont d'une importance capitale dans de nombreuses applications industrielles et dans la recherche, comme par exemple dans la métallurgie des poutres ou en mécanique des sols. La réponse des matériaux granulaires sous chargement externe est complexe, en particulier lorsqu’une rupture se produit: le mode de rupture peut être diffus ou localisé, et l’aspect de peut varier drastiquement lorsque celui-ci ne peut plus soutenir la charge externe. Dans le cadre de cette thèse, une analyse numérique basée sur une méthode des éléments discrets est réalisée pour étudier les comportements macroscopique et microscopique des matériaux granulaires à la rupture. Ces simulations numériques prennent en compte le critère du travail du second ordre afin de prédire la rupture. De plus il est montré que l’annulation du travail du second ordre coïncide avec la transition d’un régime statique vers un régime dynamique. Ensuite, le comportement matériaux granulaires est analysé à l’échelle micro-structurelle. L’évolution des chaines des forces et des cycles des grains est étudiée durant le processus de déformation jusqu’à la rupture. Le travail du second ordre est également pris en compte pour examiner l'aspect local qui régit la rupture à l’échelle locale. L'effondrement de l'échantillon discret quand il passe du régime quasi-statique vers le régime dynamique est accompagné d'une bouffée d'énergie cinétique. Cette augmentation de l'énergie cinétique est générée lorsque la contrainte interne ne permet pas d'équilibrer la force externe sous l’action d’une petite perturbation, ce qui entraîne une différence entre les travaux du second ordre interne et externe du système. Les mésostructures démontrent une relation symbiotique entre elles, et leur évolution gouverne le comportement macroscopique du système discret. La distribution de l'effondrement des chaînes de forces est parfaitement corrélée avec l’annulation du travail du second ordre à l'échelle de particules. Les mésostructures jouent un rôle important dans l'instabilité des milieux granulaires. Le travail du second ordre peut être utilisé comme un critère pertinent et robuste pour détecter l'instabilité du système que ce soit à l'échelle macroscopique ou microscopique (échelle de particule) / Granular materials consist of dense pack of solid grains and a pore-filling element such as a fluid or a solid matrix. The grains interact via elastic repulsion, friction, adhesion and other surface forces. External loading leads to grain deformations as well as cooperative particle rearrangements. The particle deformations are of particular importance in many industry applications and research subjects, such as powder metallurgy and soil mechanics. The response of granular materials to external loading is complex, especially in case when failure occurs: the mode of the failure can be diffuse or localized, and the development of specimen pattern can be drastically different when the specimen can no longer sustain external loading. In this thesis, a thorough numerical analysis based on a discrete element method is carried out to investigate the macroscopic and microscopic behavior of granular materials when a failure occurs. The numerical simulations include the vanishing of the second-order work instability criterion to detect failure. Furthermore, it is proved that the vanishing of second-order work coincides with the change from a quasi-static regime to a dynamic regime in the response of the specimen. Then, microstructure evolution is investigated. Evolution of force-chains and grain-loops are investigated during the deformation process until reaching the failure. The second-order work is once again taken into account to elucidate the local aspect that governs the failure, taking place at the particle scale. The collapse of the discrete specimen when it turns from quasi-static to dynamic regime is accompanied with a burst in kinetic energy. This rise of kinetic energy occurs when the internal stress cannot balance with the external loading when a small perturbation is added to the boundary, resulting in a difference between the internal and external second-order works of the system. The mesostructures have a symbiosis relationship with each other and their evolution decides the macroscopic behavior of the discrete system. The distribution of the collapse of force-chain correlates with the vanishing of the second-order work at the grain scale. The mesostructures play an important role in the instability of granular media. The second-order work can be used as an effective criterion to detect the instability of the system on both the macroscale and microscale (grain scale)

Les matériaux granulaires sont souvent utilisés dans les chaussées à faible trafic, pour la réalisation des couches d'assise non liées. L'objectif de la thèse est une meilleure compréhension du comportement hydromécanique des matériaux granulaires insaturés sous charge répétée en tenant compte des différents effets couplés: teneur en eau et teneur en fines. Une série d'essais triaxiaux à chargements répétés (TCR) est réalisée avec les différents échantillons de sable de Missillac remodelés à différentes teneurs en eau et en fines pour caractériser les comportements de déformation permanent et résilient. En outre, les courbes de rétention sont obtenues par des essais de succion. Puis, sur la base des résultats expérimentaux, les modèles de déformations permanentes et réversibles existants sont améliorés pour prendre en compte les teneurs en fines et en eau variables. Finalement, le comportement de l'état limite du sable Missillac est estimé avec les effets des teneurs en fines et en eau. / Granular materials are often used in low traffic pavement structures as unbound granular base and sub-base layers. The objective of this context is a better understanding of hydromechanical behaviour (deformation behaviour mainly) of the unsaturated granular materials under repeated loading taking into account the various coupled effects: water content and fine content. A series of RLTTs are conducted with the different remolded Missillac sand samples at different water contents and fine contents to characterize the permanent and resilient deformation behaviour. Besides, the soil water retention curves (SWRCs) are obtained by suction measurement. Then, based on the experimental results, the existing permanent and resilient deformation models are improved to accommodate to the changeable fine content and water content. In the end, the shakedown behaviour of Missillac sand is estimated with the effects of fine content and water content.

L’Agence nationale pour la gestion des déchets radioactifs (l’Andra) en France propose un nouveau type de voussoirs de tunnel pour les ouvrages très profonds. Pour éviter des segments de tunnel trop épais, ils proposent d’intégrer une couche de matériau granulaire sur l’extrados d’un voussoir moins épais. Cette approche prétend utiliser la grande compressilibité de la couche granulaire constituée de particules broyables et les transferts de charge interne au matériau granulaire pour réduire l’épaisseur du voussoir tout en gardant des performances mécaniques importantes. Un segment de tunnel avec une telle conception est appelé un VMC monobloc compressible (brevet en instance de l’Andra & CMC). Il s’agit d’un nouveau type de revêtement de tunnel particulièrement innovant.Cette thèse est consacrée à la création d’un modèle numérique capable de reproduire le comportement mécanique d’un couche granulaire très compressible à l’aide de la méthode aux éléments discrets (DEM) en 3D. Le milieu granulaire est constitué de particules d’argile cylindriques creuses appelées textitcoques. Chaque coque est un tube de 2 cm de long avec un diamètre de 2 cm. La faible épaisseur de la coque cylindrique la rend essentiellement constituée de vide entourée d’une fine couche d’argile. Dans le modèle, un cluster sécable (la coque) est généré à l’aide de clumps sphéro-polyédriques allon- gées . Ces clumps, appelés secteurs, sont associés entre eux en utilisant deux lois de contact adhésives. Si la combinaison des forces de contact normales et tangentielles satisfait un critère de charge spécifique, la coque se casse au niveau de l’interface entre les deux secteurs. L’outil DEM Rockable mis au point pour cette recherche peut fonctionner sur ces particules fragiles. Les propriétés mécaniques des coques, composé de 12 à 24 secteurs, sont ajustées à l’aide d’essais de compression radiale uniaxiale (verticale). Les expériences à l’échelle du grain sur les coques en argile cuite ont servi de référence. Nous avons déterminé la plage réelle de rupture et sa distribution statistique (Weibull). Les paramètres numériques et mécanique ainsi obtenus ont été validés avec succès dans le cas de la compression radiale d’une coque contrainte latéralement.Dans un premier temps, l’étude des assemblages de coques porte sur la caractérisation expérimen- tale des échantillons avec un controle sur les variables d’état initiales telles que la densité et l’orienta- tions des coques. La reconstruction 3D à partir de tomographies à rayons X d’échantillons de coques carottés dans l’extrados d’un voussoir nous a permis de caractériser l’anisotropie de l’orientation des particules. Il s’agit là d’une information précieuse pour la génération d’échantillons numériques ayant les caractéristiques initiales pertinentes. Deuxièmement, des simulations DEM de compressions oedo- métriques sur des échantillons de ⟨2 000⟩ coques sont réalisées. Une étude paramétrique permet de mettre en évidence le rôle des variables d’état initiales. Un ensemble bien choisi de variables initiales et des paramètres DEM correctement adaptés permettent d’obtenir des simulations prédictives pertinentes pour une comparaison avec les expériences de laboratoire. Une analyse micro-mécanique de l’effet de la proportion des grains cassés sur les contraintes locales exercées sur les coques (et les fragments) est effectuée. Il est observé que la rupture des coques entraîné une compressibilité élevée du matériau. Par conséquent, la réponse mécanique en déformation est considérée comme une conséquence directe de l’évolution de la rupture des particules. Pour finir, un modèle analytique de prédiction de la re- lation Contrainte↔Déformation est proposé dans le cas de la compression oedométrique. Ce modèle prédictif tient compte des variables internes du milieu granulaire comme la résistance mécanique en compression des coques. / The National Agency for Radioactive Waste Management (FR Andra) in France suggested a new way to design a tunnel lining, especially, beneficial in the case of very deep tunnels. To avoid very thick tunnel segments, they propose to integrate a layer of granular material on the extrados of the thinner lining. This approach takes the advantages of the compressible capacity of the crushable particles and the load transfer in the granular material. A tunnel segment with such design is called a Mono-block Compressible Arch-segment VMC (Andra’s & CMC’s pending patent) and is an innovative new type of tunnel linings.This PhD dissertation is dedicated to the creation of a numerical model capable of reproducing the mechanical behaviour of this compressible granular layer using 3D Discrete Element Method (DEM). The granular packing is made of the brittle hollow coarse-size cylindrical particles, called shells. Each shell is a 2 cm long tube with a diameter of 2 cm. Its small thickness makes the cylindrical shell mainly made of void surrounded by a thin layer of clay. In the model, a breakable cluster (shell) is generated using sphero-polyhedral elongated clumps. These clumps, called sectors, are glued together using two adhesive contact force laws. If the combination of the normal and tangential contact forces exceeds a suitable failure criterion, a de-clustering of the shell (breakage) occurs. The DEM tool Rockable devel- oped for this research can operate on such crushable particles. The mechanical properties of the shell model, composed of 12 to 24 sectors, are adjusted in the case of a uniaxial (vertical) radial compres- sion of shells. The preceding grain-scale experiments on the true shells made of baked clay serve as a reference. We determine the true range of the failure tensile load and its statistical Weibull distribu- tion. The user-specified parameters is then successfully validated in the case of radial compression of a horizontally constrained shell.Firstly, the macroscopic study of shell assemblies focuses on the experimental characterisation of the samples with a control of the initial state variables like a number density and a spatial arrangement of shells (shells orientations). 3D reconstruction from X-ray tomographies of the original coated shells samples extracted from the extrados of a tunnel segment help us to characterise the anisotropy of the shells orientation. This is a piece of valuable information to the generation the numerical samples of shells with relevant initial features. Secondly, a series of DEM oedometric tests on ⟨1 000 : 2 000⟩ shells is simulated. A parametric study successfully leads to the understanding of each internal state variable role. A well-chosen set of initial variables with properly adapted DEM parameters give the relevant predictive simulations for a final comparison with the experimental oedometer tests. Thanks to a discrete insight into the micromechanics, the evolutions of the breakage level, the orientation anisotropy and the local stresses exerted on the shells (and/or the fragments) are quantified during the compression. The breakage of the shells result in high compressibility of the material. Therefore, the mechanical response is seen as a consequence of the breakage evolution. Finally, an analytical model is suggested in order to predict the Stress↔Void ratio relationship knowing the initial state of the sample and the tensile strength of the constituents: the shells.

Scanning electron microscopy based automated mineralogy (SEM-AM) is a combined analytical tool initially designed for the characterisation of ores and mineral processing products. Measurements begin with the collection of backscattered electron (BSE) images and their handling with image analysis software routines. Subsequently, energy dispersive X-ray spectra (EDS) are gained at selected points according to the BSE image adjustments. Classification of the sample EDS spectra against a list of approved reference EDS spectra completes the measurement. Different classification algorithms and four principal SEM-AM measurement routines for point counting modal analysis, particle analysis, sparse phase search and EDS spectral mapping are offered by the relevant software providers. Application of SEM-AM requires a high-quality preparation of samples. Suitable non-evaporating and electron-beam stable epoxy resin mixtures and polishing of relief-free surfaces in particles and materials with very different hardness are the main challenges. As demonstrated by case examples in this contribution, the EDS spectral mapping methods appear to have the most promising potential for novel applications in metamorphic, igneous and sedimentary petrology, ore fingerprinting, ash particle analysis, characterisation of slags, forensic sciences, archaeometry and investigations of stoneware and ceramics. SEM-AM allows the quantification of the sizes, geometries and liberation of particles with different chemical compositions within a bulk sample and without previous phase separations. In addition, a virtual filtering of bulk particle samples by application of numerous filter criteria is possible. For a complete mineral phase identification, X-ray diffraction data should accompany the EDS chemical analysis. Many of the materials which potentially could be characterised by SEM-AM consist of amorphous and glassy phases. In such cases, the generic labelling of reference EDS spectra and their subsequent target component grouping allow SEM-AM for interesting and novel studies on many kinds of solid and particulate matter which are not feasible by other analytical methods.

Ziel der vorliegenden Dissertation war die Erweiterung der Kenntnisse über das nichtlinear-elastische Spannungs-Verformungsverhalten von Tragschichten ohne Bindemittel (ToB). Ein analytisches Bemessungsverfahren ist aufgrund der schwierigen Modellierbarkeit des Verformungsverhalten der einzelnen Straßenbaustoffe bisher nicht existent. Die Dissertation soll einen Beitrag zur Entwicklung eines solchen Bemessungsverfahrens leisten. Eine Literaturrecherche zum Verformungsverhalten von ToB bildet die Grundlage für die Festlegung der Vorgehensweise. Basis der weiteren Untersuchungen sind Triaxialversuche, die an der Universität Nottingham an verschiedenen Gesteinskörnungen durchgeführt wurden. Mit Hilfe der Shakedown-Theorie konnte belegt werden, dass sich ToB in unterschiedlichen Beanspruchungsbereichen nach verschiedenen Gesetzmäßigkeiten verhalten und dass Modelle zur Beschreibung des Verformungsverhaltens von ToB bereichsweise verschieden formuliert werden müssen. Somit ist es möglich, Gültigkeitsgrenzen für elastische Stoffmodelle zu ermitteln sowie Beanspruchungsgrenzen für ToB festzulegen. Mit ausgewählten Stoffmodellen erfolgten Beanspruchungsberechnungen nach der Finite-Elemente Methode (FEM). Die beste Annäherung zwischen Messwerten und Rechenergebnissen ergibt sich bei Anwendung des DRESDNER Modells. Berechnungen für Befestigungen nach den RStO 01 haben gezeigt, dass die Beanspruchungen auf den ToB bei Anwendung des DRESDNER Modells stark von denen bei Anwendung linearer Elastizität abweichen können. Durch unterschiedliche Überbauungsdicken der ToB besitzen diese einen verschieden hohen Anteil am Tragverhalten der Befestigung. Abschließend wird eine Methode zur Ermittlung von Sicherheitsniveaus vorgestellt. Bei Kenntnis der entsprechenden Schichtparameter lassen sich die Beanspruchungen jeder beliebigen Bauweise mit denen von Bauweisen nach RStO vergleichen. Als Ergebnis kann festgehalten werden, dass das Sicherheitsniveau einer bestimmten Bauweise nach RStO genauso groß ist, wie eine Befestigung mit einer dünneren Asphalttragschicht, dafür jedoch einer steiferen ToB. / The aim of this thesis was the extension of the knowledge about the resilient stress-deformation behaviour of unbound granular materials (UGM). Due to difficulties in modelling the behaviour of the single materials an analytical design method does not exist at present. Therefore this thesis makes a contribution for developing such a design method. A study of international publications about the current knowledge of the stress-deformation behaviour of UGM and repeated load triaxial tests, which have been performed at Nottingham University, were the base for all further investigations. With the shakedown concept it could be shown that materials behave in a different manner depending on the applied stress level and that material laws for describing the resilient deformation behaviour of UGM have to be formulated separately for different stress ranges. Within this thesis a method is introduced which helps to find boarders for the applicability of different material laws and limiting stress lines where below the lines stable behaviour and admissible deformations for the material are expected. Applying selected material laws finite element calculations have been performed. Comparing calculation results with measurement results it can be shown that the Dresden model offers the best approach. Calculations for pavement constructions applying the Dresden model have resulted that the vertical stresses differ very much in comparison with elastic behaviour for the UGM. It can be concluded that the thickness of the covering bounded layers have an effect to the contribution of the unbound granular layers at the complete deformation behaviour of the pavement construction. Finishing a method is introduced to determine the safety levels of pavement constructions. It seems to be possible to compare the stress-strain levels of any pavement construction with those from the german standard RStO 01. Existing functions could be modified to determine safety coefficients, i. e. ratios between admissible and existing numbers of load cycles. It can be concluded that there are the same safety levels for different pavement constructions ? a thinner asphalt layer can be compensated with a stiffer UGM.

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Cette étude a pour objectifs la caractérisation expérimentale des frottements saccadés dans les matériaux granulaires modèles constitués des billes de verre monodisperses en compression triaxiale drainée et l'identification des paramètres de contrôle. Cinq paramètres macroscopiques caractérisent ces frottements saccadés : la chute de déviateur et la contraction volumique, l'intermittence de déformation axiale, le module d'Young et le coefficient de Poisson. Les frottements saccadés affectent simultanément le déviateur et la déformation volumique. Le comportement macroscopique est globalement contractant tandis que le matériau tend vers un état limite critique en grandes déformations, à la manière des sables lâches. Cependant il présente localement, dans les phases de blocage qui suivent immédiatement les ruptures temporaires, le comportement dilatant des sables denses, qui obéit à une relation contrainte-dilatance linéaire et unique. Les frottements saccadés disparaissent au-delà d'une vitesse critique d'écrasement axial, qui dépend de la contrainte de confinement et de la taille des grains. Le module d'Young dynamique par propagation d'ondes varie avec la contrainte de confinement selon une loi de puissance. Le module d'Young quasi-élastique au départ des phases de blocage est constant à l'intérieur du domaine élastique, de même que le coefficient de Poisson. Le suivi par granulométrie laser et par analyse d'images des matériaux après un ou plusieurs essais triaxiaux permet de suivre l'évolution de la taille moyenne et de la forme des grains. Tandis que les instabilités par saccade disparaissent suite à un certain nombre d'essais, on observe, simultanément à une légère diminution du volume moyen, l'apparition progressive de populations d'objets non sphériques par une fusion des grains analogue au frittage. / The objectives of this study are the experimental characterisatino of the stick-slip instabilities in a model granular material and the identification of relevant control parameters. As monodisperse glass beads are subjected to drained triaxial compression tests, five macroscopic parameters characterize the stick-slip phenomenon: the deviator drop, the jump in volumetric contraction, the intermittence of the axial strain, Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio. The stick-slip events simultaneously affect the deviator stress and the volumetric strain. While the global material behavior is that of a loose sand, gradually contracting and hardening as it approaches its large strain critical state, its response in the “stick” phases immediately following the “slip” instabilities is similar to that of dense, dilatant sands, with a unique, linear stress-dilatancy relationship. Stick-slip events disappear beyond a critical axial strain rate, depending on the confining stress and on the grain diameter. The Young modulus associated to wave propagation varies with the confining stress according to a power law. The quasi-elastic modulus measured at the beginning of the stick phase is constant inside the elastic domain, as well as the Poisson ratio. The evolution of grain size and shape after one or several triaxial tests is monitored by laser granulometry and image analysis. The gradual vanishing of stick-slip events, on repeating the tests, is likely related to the global decreasing trend of average particle volume and to the formation of non-spherical objects, apparently by some phenomenon analogous to sintering.