專利權具有獨占性，對一國產業發展具有重要影響，為了平衡該權利，各國專利法在給予發明人專利權的同時也加諸某些限制，以我國為例，於專利法第五十七條第一項列舉專利權效力所不及之情形有：(一)為研究、教學或試驗，實施其發明，而無營利行為者。此即所謂之「實驗例外」 (experimental use exception)條款。 實驗例外條款在各國司法實務運作上，最常被引起爭論者向來集中在處方藥市場中專利藥廠與學名藥廠間之競爭議題。因為學名藥廠為了能夠盡早進入市場，不免須在專利期間屆滿前實施原廠專利進行必要之研究、試驗，以符合各國對於藥物上市管理法令之要求。 雖然我國專利法與其他國家一樣也有試驗例外條款，但其中要件嚴格限定為「非營利行為」，從比較法之方式分析，該規定係受美國普通法之影響。美國普通法關於試驗例外係採取嚴格路線，必須行為人之試驗係出於非營利目的，單純追求真相、探求知識理論，或為滿足好奇心，才可主張普通法上之實驗例外，即始係不具營利色彩之公家機關、學術單位從事之試驗，只要背後具有實質的商業目的亦不得主張試驗例外。如此造成要成功適用試驗例外是愈來愈不可能。 國際間對於試驗例外之立法，除美國外，尚存在許多形式值得我國借鏡，以歐洲共同體專利規則草案(Proposal for a Council Regulation on a Community Patent)為例，其區分「私人且非商業性目的之行為」，以及「為試驗目的之行為」，後者要求必須係針對系爭專利技術本身所進行之試驗始非專利權效力所及，若係將該專利技術作為研究工具之用，仍非法之所許。這種區分方法不僅層次分明、無觀念上混淆之虞，判斷上也較具有可預測性。 美國於1984年通過Hatch-Waxman 法案鼓勵學名藥之發展，對於為滿足主管機關關於醫藥品上市要求之試驗，在專利法271(e)(1)明文規定排除在專利權效力之外，即所謂之「Bolar例外」。我國於九十四年二月五日亦增訂藥事法第四十條之二第五項：「新藥專利權不及於藥商申請查驗登記前所進行之研究、教學或試驗」關於Bolar例外之規定。惟或因立法匆促，致法條要件不符合實際狀況，例如限定「申請查驗登記前」之行為，實際上藥廠於提出查驗登記之申請後，往往在主管機關之要求下須進行其他試驗，這些行為均在立法者原欲保護之範圍內，僅因立法用語之不當，造成實務運用之困擾。 筆者最後從法律及商業管理觀點著眼，對國內立法提出下列修法建議，作為本研究之最終成果： 壹、對於專利法第五十七條第一項第一款修法之建議 一、刪除「教學」之行為態樣 二、刪除「而無營利行為」之要件 三、增列關於研究工具之專利則無本條之適用 四、放寬適用範圍為符合主管機關法規要求而實施他人專利亦有實驗例外之適用。 贰、對於藥事法修法之建議 一、刪除「申請查驗登記前」之要件，改以行為目的來限定範圍，即「為通過藥品查驗登記所進行之研究或試驗」，始有本款之適用。 二、明定「物品專利」及「方法專利」均有本條之適用

When Mormons arrived in northern Arizona among the Navajo and Hopi Indians in the late 1850s, Mormon-Indian relations were initially friendly. It was not too long, however, before trouble began in conflicts over water use and land rights. Federal agents would soon consider Mormons a threat to the peaceful Hopis because both the Navajo and Mormons were expanding their land claims. Indian agents relentlessly pleaded with Washington to establish a separate Indian reservation. They anticipated this reservation would satisfy all three parties, but its creation in 1882 only created more problems, climaxing in the 1892 death of Lot Smith at the hands of Atsidí, the local Navajo headman. Tensions continued to increase until federal agents intervened in 1900 and placed Tuba City under a Presidential Executive Order. The order withdrew Tuba City from white claims and resulted in the expulsion of the Mormons from Tuba City in 1903. My contribution is to show how the Navajo and Hopi Indians may have considered the coming of the Mormons as an invasion by a group of foreigners which led to the resulting contest between the trios for the limited natural resources of the northern Arizona desert. Tuba City/Moenkopi has a complicated history and its origins remain contested because it was claimed not only by Mormons, but also by the Navajos and Hopi. Previous historians have neglected the wealth of history that come from using Native American oral histories. This thesis will include the Native point of view but will also integrate it with Mormon and non-Mormon narratives. Doing so will provide another perspective on some of the following: the founding of Tuba City, the creation of the 1882 and 1900 Executive Orders for Navajo and Hopi reservation expansions, the death of the Mormon Lot Smith, and Native American-Mormon relations in the late 1800s in northern Arizona.

Les Transistors Bipolaires à Hétérojonction fonctionnent à hautes fréquences sous des tensions d'environ 5V, en particulier dans le système de matériaux InP/InGaAs. Il est souhaitable d'obtenir ces performances non pas sur InP mais sur GaAs, substrat plus robuste, disponible en taille supérieure et préféré en industrie. Un buffer métamorphique GaAs → InP est alors requis pour relaxer la contrainte due au désaccord de paramètre de maille. Cette thèse porte sur la croissance par Epitaxie par Jets Moléculaires de tels buffers et de TBH InP/InGaAs à base fortement dopée au béryllium. Les buffers sont évalués via un protocole expérimental dédié au TBH, associant des caractérisations «matériaux» (photoluminescence, Double Diffraction des rayons X, microscopies optique et à force atomique AFM) et électriques (diodes métamorphiques). Nous comparons ainsi les deux processus de relaxation possibles : avec introduction progressive de la contrainte sur buffer graduel In(Ga)AlAs, abrupte sur buffer uniforme InP. Le rôle de la cinétique des adatomes III en front de croissance sur le processus graduel est démontré. Les performances des TBH métamorphiques InP/InGaAs épitaxiés sur GaAs via un buffer graduel InGaAlAs sont au final proches de celles des TBH de référence sur InP.

This diploma thesis deals with an ethical evaluation of baby hatches in the context of Catholic church doctrine. It describes baby hatches in technical and legal prospect. Mainly it shows the situation in the Czech republic. The thesis outlines general objections to baby hatches.From the ethical point of view baby hathes are primarily apprehended on the basis of ultima ratio principle. The thesis also refers to single social institutions like family, state, church and school which are fallen the task of solving problem of children abandonement.

Reproductive success in loggerhead (Caretta caretta) sea turtles is strongly dependent on the effective placement and internal conditions of their nests. Embryos rely on optimal incubation conditions for proper development and growth, which determines how many hatchlings will emerge from the nest. The internal microclimate of each nest is delicately balanced and can be easily influenced by external environmental conditions. This study was designed to examine several environmental variables and determine their effects on sea turtle nesting numbers, hatching success, and incubation conditions in Broward County Florida. Over a span of 25 years (1991-2015), the Broward County Sea Turtle Conservation Program has collected data on each sea turtle nest laid in Broward County. This data was analyzed and plotted to visualize nesting and hatching trends, and regressions were fitted to make comparisons to historic air temperature, sea surface temperature, precipitation, and lunar illumination data. These regressions were tested for significance, and each environmental variable was found to have varying levels of impact on sea turtle nesting and hatching behavior. Of the environmental variables considered in this study, analyses suggest that sea turtles are most responsive to temperature, with sea surface temperature serving as the best proxy for predicting nesting behaviors. Air temperature over the incubation period was found to be the best indicator for hatch success percentage. Air temperature, sea surface temperature, and precipitation averages all significantly affected the length of the incubation period. The regression models created in this study could be used to examine the interactions between climatic variables, and to indicate what impacts can be expected by these various environmental factors. This information could be used to estimate the future effects of climate change on sea turtle reproduction, and to predict general reproductive success and future population trends.

This thesis resumes both theoretical and practical knowledge with surface protection by wet painting which the student achieved during her studies and within her practice which she got in the painting shop of cabs for building, handling and agricultural machines. In her thesis the student has found out that one of current trends focuses on the method which is ecologically friendly and preserves paint lifetime. To achieve that, ED-coat painting is used first and then followed by the painting of waterborne paint. Within the scope of her thesis objective she has also optimised the process of surface protection respective technological pre-treatments and parameters which are carried out during ED-coat and e-coat painting, such as optimal thickness of coating, temperatures or technological time outs.

Whithin their natural environment, plants are subjected to a combination of stress conditions. Since potential interactions between signal pathways, plants respond to multiple stresses differently from how they do to individual stresses, activating a specific programme. Heat shock proteins (HSP70) overexpressed after heat shock influence the viral infection. On one side HSP70 can participate on refolding of aggregated or partially denaturated proteins, on the other side HSP70 can interact with viral proteins and facilitate propagation of viral replication complexes. In this work the effect of heat shock (42řC, 2. hours) applied before or after the inoculation of plants Nicotiana tabacum L. cv. Petit Havana SR1 with Potato virus Y on viral infection was detected. This effect was studied in two biological experiments. The amount of coat protein of PVYNTN and protein HSP70 were detected simultaneously with the activity assays of Hatch-Slack cycle enzymes, glycosidases and peroxidase. Both experimental approaches (heat shock applied before or after the inoculation by PVYNTN ) enhanced amount of the virus and in the 2nd experiment it accelerated infection development. Immediately after application of heat shock the amount of HSP70 was increased. The enhancement of HSP70 by viral infection occurred...

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隨著醫療科技的進展，人類對於疾病的成因、機轉、病程、及治療，在不斷地研究突破下，有著持續的進步而對人類的健康有著不可或缺的貢獻。其中藥品，正是人類對抗疾病最關鍵、也最普遍的方式之一，對公共衛生的重要性自不待言。 其中，由於生命科學的本質使然，開發新的藥品對於研究發展的倚賴，遠勝於其他產業，因此，創新研發藥廠對於開發一項新藥的平均投資，已達十三億美元之譜；此外，由於藥物對人體的生理功能、體內恆定能造成極大的影響，因此世界各國的醫藥衛生主管機關無不對於藥品的上市加以嚴格的管制，使得現今開發一項藥品平均約耗時十至十五年。藥品開發的巨大投入與耗時極長的開發期間，使得製藥產業亟需經由智慧財產權的制度來提供其投入研發創新之誘因。然而，因為智慧財產之保護，也使得新藥往往售價高昂而造成公眾近用之阻礙。而學名藥正是解決這樣的問題的關鍵之一，亦為世界各國所大力推動。在推動學名藥產業上，實驗實施免責為制度上極為重要的考量之一。本文及希望藉由對製藥產業特質之探究，美國普通法上以及成文法上實驗實施免責的探討，我國實驗實施免責之規定與判決之研究，來找出我國當下實驗實施免責的規定於製藥產業中適用時所可能發生的問題，以及相對應的可能改進方案。 本文第二章本章先行探討製藥產業之特質；第三章討論美國普通法上實驗實施免責之概念，並歸結出美國普通法上實驗實施免責的三項適用要件；第四章探討美國成文法上實驗實施免責之立法背景、相關判決以及對生物科技領域各層面的影響；第五章則先行探討世界貿易組織於「與貿易相關智慧財產權協定」中對於專利權之限制基礎。其後探討我國專利法中之一般實驗實施免責以及藥事法中針對製藥產業之實驗實施免責之相關規定，並由學者論述以及相關判決中，探討我國實驗實施免責之相關規定於製藥產業實務上所可能面臨之問題，並提出可能之解決方案。 / With the progress of medical technology, humans have been furthering the understanding of the etiologies, mechanisms, courses, and treatments of diseases. Such continued progresses have contributed significantly to improving human health. Among all the treatments, the pharmaceutical is one of the key and common ways with which humanity fight diseases. Its importance to public health is beyond doubt. Due to the nature of the life sciences, the pharmaceutical industry depends more on research and development than other industries do. Therefore, on average, it costs innovative pharmaceutical companies 1.3 billion U.S. dollars to develop a new drug. Furthermore, countries around the world pose strict regulations on new drugs’ entering the market since drugs cause huge impacts on the physiological functions and internal balances of the human body. Hence, it generally takes ten to fifteen years for a new drug to be fully developed. The enormous investment and lengthy developing period makes the pharmaceutical companies extremely dependant on the intellectual property system to provide them with the incentive for research and development. However, it is also because of the intellectual property protection that makes new drugs expensive and difficult for the public to access. The Generic drug, however, is one of the key solutions to solve this problem and is intensively promoted by countries all over the world. Regarding the promotion of the generic drug industry, the experimental use exemption is one of the vital systemic considerations. There are discussions on the characters of the pharmaceutical industry, on the common law and statutory experimental use exemptions of the United States, and on the related regulations and precedents of the experimental use exemption in Taiwan. Through the above discussions, the thesis is aimed at identifying the possible problems the regulations on experimental use exemption might cause when applied to the practice of the pharmaceutical industry and at proposing possible solutions to such problems. The characters of the pharmaceutical industry are discussed in Chapter two. The concepts and the criteria of the common law experimental use exemptions are discussed in Chapter three. The legislation background, related precedents, and impacts on the field of biotechnology of the statutory experimental use exemptions in the United States are illustrated in Chapter four. Lastly, in chapter five, the restrictions on patent right in the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights of the World Trade Organization is first discussed. The related regulations on experimental use exemptions in Taiwan are later discussed. Lastly, through the scholars’ opinions and related precedents, the possible problems of application of the experimental use exemption in Taiwan are illustrated and the probable solutions are proposed.

在歐美國家的強大貿易談判壓力下，我國立法院於民國九十四年一月二十一日完成藥事法第四十條之二的立法，同年二月五日由總統公布實施，進入實施資料專屬權制度的時期。 資料專屬權乃以處方藥品試驗資料為保護對象，由美國首先立法，利用貿易談判、國際協定向外推動的法律制度；美國對於新成分新藥及非新成分新藥、補充申請之試驗資料，分別賦予五年及三年的保護，於此資料專屬權期間內，其他藥廠不得使用或援引試驗資料權利人的試驗資料提出新藥上市申請。本文參酌美國最高法院於EPA v. Monsanto案例之見解，認為資料專屬權制度之法理基礎，乃係對於試驗資料權利人營業秘密之保護，以防止來自其他藥廠之不公平競爭；這項制度之經濟上意義，則在於藉由賦予藥品試驗資料權利人一段資料專屬權期間，要求學名藥廠必須進行其考量本身資力及市場後，不可能自己實施的藥品安全性及有效性試驗，使因而間接獲得市場獨占利益的試驗資料權利人，得到足以回收其藥品試驗資料投資之機會。 TRIPS第三十九條第三項規範保護藥品試驗資料的國際最低標準，它的保護標的限於藥廠為了取得於申請國第一次提出之「新化學成分」藥品之上市許可，所提出其花費相當時間、金錢始取得，而未經揭露之必要試驗或其他資料。會員國對於符合此項條件之資料，負有避免其被不公平商業使用之義務。本文認為所謂「不公平商業使用」，係指未提供藥品試驗資料權利人回收其對於試驗資料所為投資之機會，所為客觀上足以使得他人自其試驗資料獲得商業上利益的一切使用或應用試驗資料的行為；所以如果政府機關於「參考」藥品試驗資料權利人所提出藥品試驗資料時，未提供任何使其得以回收對於試驗資料所為投資之機會，即應認為政府機關此等參考行為，屬於「不公平的商業使用」行為。因此，資料專屬權制度可謂符合TRIPS第三十九條第三項所規範保護藥品試驗資料之標準；但如果會員國能夠建立另外一套賦予藥品試驗資料權利人回收其對於藥品試驗資料所為投資機會之制度，同樣也可以符合TRIPS第三十九條第三項的最低保護標準，並不一定必須採取資料專屬權之保護模式。 我國新修正藥事法第四十條之二採行資料專屬權制度，相關條文規定多有闕漏，本文認為新修正藥事法第四十條之二第一項之保護客體，應以「新成分新藥」之查驗登記申請人本身享有權利，為通過查驗登記所提出，且支付相當成本所取得之尚未公開營業秘密資料為限。第四十條之二第二項、第三項之保護方式，則係規定學名藥品於原廠藥品上市後滿三年，始得引據其查驗登記申請資料提出查驗登記申請，且滿五年之後，始能取得藥品許可證。至於第四十條之二第四項有關外國上市新藥的准用規定，可謂缺乏法理依據及執行可能，且實際上也不會發生任何效用的條文，建議應予刪除。 藥品試驗資料屬於原廠所有無形資產，提供適當保護以維公平競爭，有其正當性，但無論自藥品試驗資料之公益屬性、重複試驗的人道問題、重複試驗與獨占市場缺乏經濟效益等觀點來看，資料專屬權制度都有相當的負面影響，所以一套可以提供藥品試驗資料權利人回收其對於藥品試驗資料所為投資，且可以避免重複試驗或市場壟斷之「補償」制度，應有必要。 依據哈佛大學Aaron教授對於學名藥廠應分擔原廠藥品試驗資料投資之補償金，所提出的可重新調整補償金模式，每個學名藥廠都可以依據當時在市場上的學名藥廠總數，平均分擔其當年度應支付原廠的補償金比例，每個適用這套計算補償金架構的國家，都可以依據其國家學名藥產業及藥品市場的發展狀況，設定適當之參數，本文以為，乃足以替代資料專屬權制度之最佳選擇。 至於應該如何計算藥品試驗資料之成本，本文則提出下列公式： ( S ) C = --------------------------------- x ( N ) + H S +S1+S2+˙˙˙ C：學名藥廠應分擔原廠試驗資料成本之範圍。 N：原廠於第一個申請上市國家所花費的試驗資料成本。 H：原廠於學名藥申請上市國家所花費的試驗資料成本。 S：學名藥申請上市國家的國民生產毛額(GDP)。 S1+S2+˙˙˙：由主管機關所核定包括第一個申請上市國家的世界主要藥品市場國的GDP總和。 亦即本文認為，發生在學名藥申請上市國家的藥品試驗資料成本，應該全額列入學名藥廠應分擔成本的範圍；發生於第一個申請新藥上市國家的藥品試驗資料成本，則應該由每個學名藥申請上市國家的學名藥廠，依據該國GDP(表彰藥品支出費用)占世界主要藥品市場(包括第一個上市國家)各國GDP總和的比例，分攤其應負擔之部分。 因此，本文認為，以本文建議之計算公式核算各國應分擔之藥品試驗資料成本，並以「可重新調整補償金模式」之公式計算各學名藥廠每年應支付之補償金，應係較佳之保護藥品試驗資料模式。