This thesis is dealing with selection of proper airplane data bus for distributed Fly-by-Wire system. The parameters of such data bus are defined here and description of such data buses are given as well. The proper data bus which fulfils the given parameters is selected. Next the safety and time-delay analysis are provided.

In the United States, over 90 contaminants in community water supplies (CWS) are regulated based on maximum contaminant limits (MCLs) set by the Environmental Protection Agency under the Safe Drinking Water Act. These limits are crucial to the health of over 90% of the US population who rely on CWS for their drinking water. Despite advancements in safer water, questions remain about the potential role of prolonged exposures to contaminants at sub-regulatory levels in chronic diseases. Historically, conducting epidemiologic studies of drinking water exposures in the United States has been challenging due to the fragmented availability of CWS service areas and contaminant information, which varies depending on each state’s efforts. This dissertation attempts to overcome some of these barriers by collaborating with long-standing institutes in California to evaluate the relationship between drinking water contaminants (arsenic, uranium, and trihalomethanes) and the risks of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and chronic kidney disease (CKD) in a large prospective cohort. The California Teachers Study (CTS) cohort is comprised of over 130,000 women living across the state and followed for health outcomes, including CVD and CKD, since enrollment (1995-1996). The California Office of Environmental Health Hazard and Assessment (OEHHA) houses some of the most detailed information about CWS available in the United States. With their partnership, we consolidated three decades (1990-2020) worth of yearly contaminant data from CWS. Thanks to a statewide effort that gathered service boundary data from local agencies, we were able to identify CWS serving participants’ residential addresses. Ultimately, these efforts produced new drinking water exposure data available in the CTS cohort, accessible for the analyses of associated health outcomes. Chapter 1 provides an overview of the novel contributions and methods of this dissertation, and background knowledge about the three common drinking water contaminants under study—arsenic, uranium, and trihalomethanes. The three epidemiologic studies included in this dissertation were designed to evaluate the relationship between these contaminants and health outcomes, selected based on previous toxicologic evidence. To this end, we detail current knowledge on the relationships between a) arsenic and CVD, b) uranium and arsenic and CKD, and c) trihalomethanes and CKD. Chapter 2 details our efforts to construct residential histories of CTS participants using address data collected throughout follow-up (1995-2018). Environmental epidemiologic studies using geospatial data often estimate exposure at a participant’s residence upon enrollment, but mobility during the exposure period can lead to misclassification. We aimed to mitigate this issue using address records that have been self-reported and collected from the US Postal Service, LexisNexis, Experian, and California Cancer Registry. We identified records of the same address based on geo-coordinate distance (≤250m) and street name similarity. We consolidated addresses, prioritizing those confirmed by participants during follow-up questionnaires, and estimating the duration lived at each address using dates associated with records (e.g., date-first-seen). During 23-years of follow-up, about half of participants moved (48%, including 14% out-of-state). We observed greater mobility among younger women, Hispanic or Latina women, and those in metropolitan and lower socioeconomic status areas. The cumulative proportion of in-state movers remaining eligible for analysis was 21%, 32%, and 41% at 5-, 10-, and 20-years post-enrollment, respectively. Using self-reported information collected 10 years after enrollment, we correctly identified 94% of self-identified movers and 95% of non-movers as having moved or not moved from their enrollment address. This dataset provides a foundation for estimating long-term exposure to drinking water contaminants evaluated in this dissertation, and supports other epidemiologic studies of diverse environmental exposures and health outcomes in this cohort. Chapter 3 details our first epidemiologic analysis evaluating the relationship between long-term arsenic exposure from CWS and CVD risk in the CTS cohort. Inorganic arsenic in drinking water is linked to atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease. However, risk is uncertain at lower levels present in CWS, currently regulated at the federal maximum contaminant level of 10µg/L. Using statewide healthcare administrative records from enrollment through follow-up (1995-2018), we identified fatal and nonfatal cases of ischemic heart disease (IHD) and CVD (including stroke). Participants’ residential addresses were linked to a network of CWS boundaries and annual arsenic concentrations (1990-2020). Most participants resided in areas served by a CWS (92%). Exposure was calculated as a time-varying, 10-year moving average up to a participant’s event, death, or end of follow-up. Using multivariable-adjusted Cox models, we estimated hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (95%CIs) for the risk of IHD or CVD. We evaluated arsenic exposure categorized by concentration thresholds relevant to regulation standards (<1.00, 1.00-2.99, 3.00-4.99, 5.00-9.99, ≥10µg/L) and continuously using a log2-transformation (i.e., per doubling). We also stratified analyses by age, body mass index (BMI), and smoking status. This analysis included 98,250 participants, 6,119 IHD cases and 9,936 CVD cases. The HRs for IHD at concentration thresholds (ref:<1µg/L) were 1.06 (95%CI=1.00-1.12) at 1.00-2.99µg/L, 1.05 (95%CI=0.94-1.17) at 3.00-4.99µg/L, 1.20 (95%CI=1.02-1.41) at 5.00-9.99µg/L, and 1.42 (95%CI=1.10-1.84) at ≥10µg/L. HRs for every doubling of wAs exposure were 1.04 (95%CI=1.02-1.06) for IHD and 1.02 (95%CI=1.01-1.04) for CVD. We observed statistically stronger risk among those ≤55 versus >55 years at enrollment (pinteraction=0.006 and 0.012 for IHD and CVD, respectively). This study demonstrates that long-term arsenic exposure from CWS, at and below the regulatory limit, may increase cardiovascular disease risk, particularly IHD. Chapter 4 details our second epidemiologic analysis evaluating uranium and arsenic from CWS and CKD risk in the CTS cohort. Metals/metalloids in drinking water, including uranium and arsenic, have been linked to adverse kidney effects and may contribute to CKD risk, but few epidemiologic studies exist. Annual average concentrations of uranium and arsenic were obtained for CWS serving participants’ residential address(es). We calculated participant’s average exposure from enrollment in 1995 to 2005. CKD cases were ascertained from inpatient hospitalization records beginning in 2005, once diagnostic coding was adopted, through 2018. Our analysis included 6,185 moderate to end stage CKD cases among 88,185 women. We evaluated exposure categorized by concentration thresholds relevant to regulatory standards, up to ½ the current regulatory limit (uranium=15µg/L; arsenic=5µg/L), and continuously on the log scale per interquartile range (IQR). We used mixed-effect multivariable-adjusted Cox models to estimate HRs and 95%CIs of CKD by uranium or arsenic levels. We also conducted analyses stratified by risk factors and comorbidities. Exposures at the 50th (25th, 75th) percentiles were 3.1 (0.9, 5.6) µg/L for uranium, and 1.0 (0.6, 1.8) µg/L for arsenic. Higher uranium exposure, relative to <2µg/L, was associated with CKD risk, with HRs of 1.20 (95%CI=1.07-1.35) at 2.0-<5.0µg/L, 1.08 (95%CI=0.95-1.22) at 5.0-<10µg/L, 1.33 (95%CI=1.15, 1.54) at 10-<15µg/L, and 1.32 (95%CI=1.09-1.58) at ≥15µg/L (ptrend=0.024). We found no overall association between arsenic and CKD (log IQR; HR=1.02, 95%CI=0.98-1.07). However, risk from arsenic was statistically different by age and comorbidity status, with risk only observed among younger individuals (≤55 years), and those who developed cardiovascular disease or diabetes. Uranium exposure from drinking water below the current regulatory limit may increase CKD risk. Relatively low, chronic exposure to arsenic may affect kidney function among those with comorbidities. Chapter 5 details our third and final epidemiologic analysis evaluating trihalomethanes in residential CWS and CKD risk in the CTS cohort. Disinfection byproducts from water chlorination, including trihalomethanes (THMs), have been associated with bladder cancer and adverse birth outcomes. Despite mechanistic evidence of nephrotoxic effects, especially brominated THMs, no epidemiologic studies to date have evaluated CKD risk. This study included 89,158 women with 6,232 moderate to end stage CKD cases identified from statewide healthcare administrative records (2005-2018). Average concentrations of four THMs, including three brominated THMs, were calculated for CWS serving participants’ residential addresses from 1995-2005. We estimated HRs and 95%CIs using mixed-effect multivariable-adjusted Cox models. A g-computation mixture analysis approach was used to estimate the overall effect and relative contribution of brominated THMs, chloroform (non-brominated THM), as well as uranium and arsenic—other potentially nephrotoxic metals in CWS previously evaluated. Median (25th, 75th, 95th percentiles) were 5.5 (0.5, 24.1, 57.8) µg/L for total THMs and 2.7 (0.6, 11.3, 30.0) µg/L for brominated THMs. In flexible exposure-response models, we observed a positive relationship between total THMs and CKD risk, which was stronger for brominated THMs. The HRs (95%CIs) of CKD risk from brominated THMs at the highest two exposure categories (75th-94th, ≥95th, versus <25th) were 1.23 (1.13-1.33) and 1.43 (1.23-1.66), respectively; ptrend<0.001. Brominated THMs were the largest contributor (53%) to the overall mixture effect on CKD risk, followed by uranium (35%), arsenic (6%), and chloroform (5%). Trihalomethanes in water, in particular brominated trihalomethanes which are not regulated separately, may contribute to CKD development, even at levels below the current US regulatory limit (80µg/L). Chapter 6 concludes this dissertation by summarizing our findings, highlighting the policy implications, relevance to other populations, and discussing future directions. Recently, the US EPA has released a geospatial dataset of CWS boundaries across the country that can be used in conjunction with national contaminant data. This development underscores the growing recognition for more research on drinking water quality and health. We hope that the methods developed and used in our analyses will be informative to future studies, and that there will be opportunities for replication of our findings to better inform policy and protect the health of populations nationwide.

Despite efforts of reducing harmful physical ergonomics exposures related to manual handling, the occurrence of heavy or repetitive manual handling, and non-neutral postures is high in many occupational sectors. To reduce these exposures, interventions and job design strategies can utilize risk assessment. A need was identified of an observation-based tool which supported occupational health and safety practitioners for assessments of risk factors related to manual handling. The aim of this thesis was to explore the use and important usability-related aspects of observation-based assessment tools among professional ergonomists, and to develop new research based assessment and screening tools, to present their scientific basis and to evaluate their reliability and usability. A web-based questionnaire was employed to gain knowledge on the use and usability aspects of risk assessment tools among ergonomists in Sweden. The assessment tools RAMP I and RAMP II were developed in an iterative process, including literature searches, expert group judgments, and with input from more than 80 practitioners. The reliability and usability evaluations included assessments and ratings by practitioners. The thesis points to a low use of several internationally spread assessment tools among Swedish ergonomists, and a relatively higher use of tools promoted by the Swedish Work Environment Authority. Several usability-related aspects were identified as important, such as being easy and quick to use, its ability to communicate and visualize the results, and its ability to facilitate improvement measures. The developed tools support assessment of a broad range of risk factors related to manual handling. The thesis supports that assessments with acceptable reliability can be achieved for the majority of items of the two developed tools. The thesis supports that the tools are usable in supporting risk assessments targeting risk factors related to industrial manual handling. / Trots ansträngningar för att minska belastningsergonomiska exponeringar relaterade till manuell hantering är förekomsten av exponering av riskkällor såsom tung eller repetitiv manuell hantering, obekväma arbetsställningar, hand–armvibrationer och helkroppsvibration omfattande inom flera sektorer. Dessa belastningsergonomiska exponeringar tros i betydande utsträckning bidra till en stor andel av arbetsrelaterade muskuloskeletala besvär och arbetssjukdomar inom flera sektorer som exempelvis tillverkningsindustrin. Riskbedömningar kan användas inom det förebyggande arbetet kopplat till interventioner eller arbetsutformning för att minska dessa skadliga exponeringar (risk faktorer), vilket även är ett krav om arbetet innefattar manuell hantering eller andra riskkällor. Trots det stora antalet observationsbaserade bedömningsverktyg utvecklade för att stödja riskbedömningar av arbete som innefattar manuell hantering identifierades ett behov av ett nytt observationsbaserat bedömningsverktyg som stödjer praktiker i utförliga bedömningar av flertalet riskfaktorer relaterade till manuell hantering och som ger stöd i det systematiska arbetsmiljöarbetet. Syftet med avhandlingen är att utforska användningen av, och viktiga användbarhetsrelaterade aspekter av observationsbaserade bedömningsverktyg bland professionella ergonomer som arbetar i Sverige. Dessutom är syftet även att utveckla nya forskningsbaserade screeningverktyg och bedömningsverktyg, presentera deras forskningsbas samt att utvärdera deras reliabilitet och användbarhet. En webbaserad enkät användes för att inhämta kunskap om i vilken omfattning dessa verktyg används av professionella ergonomer och vilka användbarhetsrelaterade aspekter som ansågs särskilt betydelsefulla för dessa verktyg. För att utveckla de nya verktygen (dvs. RAMP I och RAMP II) genomfördes litteratursökningar för att identifiera kvantitativt beskrivna riskfaktorer relaterade till manuell hantering och betydelsefulla faktorer som påverkar arbetstagares kapacitet vid manuell hantering. Verktygen utvecklades i en iterativ process med input från mer 80 praktiker, varav mer än 30 professionella ergonomer, samt expertgruppsbedömning. De två verktygen utvärderades med avseende deras interbedömarreliabilitet utifrån bedömningar genomförda av ergonomer och ingenjörer/tekniker utifrån videofilmade arbeten inom industriell manuell hantering. Verktygens användbarhet utvärderas av 20 praktiker med en pappersenkät och verktygens ’användarvänlighet’ av 22 ergonomer. Avhandlingen pekar på en relativt låg proportionell användning av flera internationellt spridda bedömningsverktyg bland professionella ergonomer som arbetar i Sverige, och en relativt hög proportionell användning av bedömningsverktyg som stöds av Arbetsmiljöverket. Flera användbarhetsrelaterade aspekter identifierades som betydelsefulla bland ergonomerna, i synnerhet betydelsen av att bedömningsverktygen är enkla och snabba att använda, deras förmåga att kommunicera och visualisera resultatet av bedömningar, och deras förmåga att stödja åtgärdsarbetet. Det utvecklade screeningverktyget och bedömningsverktyget stödjer bedömning av flertalet riskfaktorer relaterade till industriell manual hantering. Avhandling ger stöd att majoriteten av verktygens bedömningspunkter har acceptabel interbedömarreliabilitet och förbättringsområden för verktygen har identifierats. Avhandling ger stöd att de två utvecklade verktygen är användbara vid riskbedömningar av belastningsergonomiska riskfaktorer relaterade till industriell manual hantering. / <p>QC 20170510</p>