This chapter reviews the literature applying health behavior theories to indoor tanning. Few studies have tried to fit full versions of health behavior models to indoor tanning. Theoretical models from the family of theories referred to as the reasoned action approach (e.g., theory of planned behavior, behavioral alternative model, prototype willingness model, etc.) have been most commonly used to study indoor tanning. Results indicate that these models fit indoor tanning data moderately to extremely well. Two lesser known models, problem behavior theory and the terror management health model, have also demonstrated a reasonable fit. Two other common models, the health belief model and social cognitive theory, have never been fully tested with indoor tanning. However, key constructs from these models (e.g., perceived susceptibility and threat, modeling) have been used to understand indoor tanning. Empirical research conducted represents a solid start toward developing strong, comprehensive models of indoor tanning that can guide intervention efforts. This initial work needs to be expanded by conducting longitudinal studies and by including a broader age range in studies because the majority of existing work has focused on young adults. Incorporating findings related to tanning dependency, peer group affiliation, media influences and other constructs into these foundational models will also improve our understanding and ability to develop efficacious interventions to reduce engagement in this health risk behavior.

This study’s purpose was to explore the knowledge, attitudes and perceptions regarding HIV/AIDS and condom use, and sexual behaviours among senior secondary school learners in Kumba, Cameroon using the Health Belief Model (HBM) as the theoretical framework. The ultimate goal was to determine how at risk learners were of contracting HIV/AIDS. A quantitative, non-experimental descriptive, explorative and correlational research design was adapted; using self-designed questionnaires for data collection. Respondents were sampled through proportionally stratified simple random sampling resulting in 480 (240 male and 240 female) grade 10 to grade 12 learners from two participating high schools. Descriptive and inferential statistics were calculated using the SPSS version 12 software program. Most learners were knowledgeable about HIV transmission; the prevention of HIV/AIDS; and sexual risk behaviours pertaining to HIV transmission. Learners also manifested positive attitudes towards PLWHA. Most learners did not perceive themselves to be at high risk of contracting HIV/AIDS. Up to 52,3% who were sexually active, only 30,0% used condoms consistently. The respondents knew about condoms, but had poor attitudes towards condom use. Most respondents received information on HIV/AIDS, condoms and sexuality from magazines/newspapers and teachers. The findings could assist policy makers, programme planners and educators in developing and implementing programmes to improve the health of adolescents. The perceived barriers to condom use and modifying factors should be addressed into consideration in designing any policy geared towards controlling risk exposure to HIV/AIDS among youths in Kumba, Cameroon.

This study investigated the challenges faced by implementers of VCT campaigns for higher education distance learning students. Qualitative and explorative approaches, using a case study, were employed as the research methodology. It has been concluded that the administrative planning procedures of VCT campaigns were not properly followed, which resulted in the following difficulties: defining the roles and responsibilities of stakeholders, using limited resources, and the inability to reach all the students, in order to get them to actively participate in the campaigns. Lack of coordination of HIV and AIDS activities and the absence of monitoring and evaluation also impacted negatively on the success of VCT campaigns. This study recommends that VCT campaigns have a proper task team constituting of experts in VCT campaign operations, in order to strategically plan and coordinate all the campaigns' activities. The implementers should also monitor and evaluate these activities on a regular basis. / Social Work / M.A. (Social Behaviour Studies in HIV/AIDS)

Text in English / The Department of Education nationwide introduced HIV and AIDS care and support for learning and teaching programmes as intervention strategies for supporting vulnerable learners. Despite these interventions, teenagers continue to fall pregnant and this increases their vulnerability to HIV infection. HIV and STIs are rife among teenagers owing to ignorance and peer pressure, among other factors. The aim of this exploratory qualitative study was to explore factors that influence condom use among high school teenagers aged between 16 and 18 in Dutywa District. Focus group discussions and in-depth face-to-face interviews with 12 high school teenagers from one high school (High School X) were used to collect data. Thematic analysis was used to analyse data. The findings of this study revealed that high school teenagers are not using condoms to any significant degree. In their opinion, condoms limit sexual pleasure; they indicate a lack of trust and unfaithfulness between partners and are associated with sexually transmitted diseases. The findings of this study are significant for the policy implementation of schools. / Sociology / M.A. (Social Behaviour Studies in HIV and AIDS)

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / The study was conducted to examine the communication between the customer and the cashier at the point of purchase in the process of determining the impact of the labeling laws. This study used an inductive qualitative design for data collection and data analysis. Data from this study suggest that calorie counts on menu labels are discussed frequently between the customer and the cashier at the point of sale at fast-casual restaurants. The data found gives us a framework and rationale as to why previous research on the effectiveness of the calorie labeling law in the Affordable Care Act have yet to make a significant impact in reducing consumer’s total daily caloric intake when eating food away from the home and found three specific reasons as to why the calorie labeling law may not be working the way the government intended it to. First, consumers at fast-casual restaurants rely on the cashiers as calorie guides because they are not aware or knowledgeable about the recommended daily caloric intake and often underestimate the total calories in their meals. Secondly, the study’s findings indicate that when restaurants offer lower calorie choices and downsizing options like a “small pita” at Pita Pit instead of a “regular pita”, many consumers buy the downsized item or smaller portion but food chains are not downsizing their signature items. Third, the study examined if the cashiers are trained in any way to discuss new regulations and calorie count/nutritional value and not one cashier was trained specifically about the calorie labeling law and why certain foods on the menu have more calories than others even though they are influencing decision making. Conversations at the point of sale have been routinely ignored in research about the calorie labeling law and this research helps to understand the choices consumers are making with the newly implemented calorie labeling regulation. The results from this study helps us further advance our understanding as to why consumers make the food choices they do while eating at restaurants.

The study sought to explore and describe the risk behaviour regarding HIV transmission among youth in Bulawayo, their knowledge of HIV transmission and the sources of information on HIV transmission accessible to them. A quantitative, descriptive exploratory design was used and 238 youth from three secondary schools in Bulawayo, the second largest city in Zimbabwe were the respondents. The Health Belief Model (HBM) was used to facilitate and acquire insight into the risk behaviour among the youth. The inferences drawn from the study were that youth have inadequate knowledge about HIV transmission and therefore do not fully understand their risk of infection. Youth also find shyness and fear of rejection serious barriers to communicating openly about sexuality, sexual and HIV/AIDS issues. The findings of the study have implications for programmes to limit HIV transmission among youth and should assist policymakers and educators in developing and implementing such programmes in order to improve the health of youth in Zimbabwe. / Health Studies / M.A. (Health Studies)

The purpose of this study was to investigate the perceptions of young people regarding the O Icheke MCP campaign who are members of Selebi Phikwe District Youth Council, in a mining town in central Botswana. The main objective of the study was to explore young people‘s views about MCP, to solicit their views on the key strength and weaknesses of the campaign, and to make recommendations to further strengthen the campaign. Within the framework of the Health Belief Model, a qualitative research approach was employed and data was collected using four focus group discussions categorised into the following strata  Males aged 18-24 years  Females aged 18-24 years  Males aged 25-35 years  Females aged 25-35 years The overall study finding was that financial issues, the apparent need for sexual variety, quest for material possession, and the impact of unemployment, migration and alcohol abuse are seen as some of the major factors underlying MCP in Botswana. The O Icheke Multiple Concurrent Partnership campaign was positively viewed as playing a key role in addressing the apparent knowledge gap regarding the impacts of these partnerships and in changing people‘s attitudes towards MCP and discouraging wide sexual networks. The campaign‘s target population, funding, stakeholders and delivery mode of the program were identified as its pillars and an effective vehicle to achieve its goals. The consultation between funding office and implementing organisations, coverage of the programme in surrounding areas and growing non-profit organisation were identified to affect the MCP campaign to achieve its goals. The recommendation is that more has to be done to improve the implementation of O Icheke programme through more funding, consultation with programme implementers, tailor made for people with disability and covering surrounding areas. The recommendation is that more has to be done to improve the implementation of O Icheke programme through more funding, consultation and capacity building of volunteers. / Health Studies / MA (Social Behaviour Studies in HIV and AIDS)

This study aimed to identify factors affecting women’s utilisation of the prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) of HIV, evaluate the quality of PMTCT services, describe health outcomes of mothers and infants and to identify factors that influence mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of HIV. Structured interviews were conducted with 384 women who had utilised PMTCT services. Information was also obtained from the health records of these women and of their infants. Better educated women, who had male partners and were self-employed were more likely to use PMTCT services. Being unmarried, poor and feeling stigmatised made it difficult for women to use these services. Respondents were satisfied with PMTCT services except that clinics sometimes had no medications. The health care workers followed the Ethiopian guidelines during HIV testing and counseling but not when prescribing treatment. Although the respondents’ CD4 cell counts improved, their clinical conditions did not improve. The MTCT rate was significantly higher if infants did not receive ARVs, had APGAR scores below seven, weighed less than 2.5kg at birth, were born prematurely, and if their mothers had nipple fissures. PMTCT services could be improved if more women used these services, health care workers followed the national guidelines when prescribing ARVs, clinics had adequate supplies of medicines, all infants received ARVs, and mothers’ nipple fissures could be prevented. Antenatal care should help to avoid premature births of infants weighing less than 2.5kg and having APGAR scores below 7. Future research should compare formula feeding versus breastfeeding of infants with HIV-positive mothers / Health Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Health Studies)

The purpose of this study was to investigate the perceptions of young people regarding the O Icheke MCP campaign who are members of Selebi Phikwe District Youth Council, in a mining town in central Botswana. The main objective of the study was to explore young people‘s views about MCP, to solicit their views on the key strength and weaknesses of the campaign, and to make recommendations to further strengthen the campaign. Within the framework of the Health Belief Model, a qualitative research approach was employed and data was collected using four focus group discussions categorised into the following strata  Males aged 18-24 years  Females aged 18-24 years  Males aged 25-35 years  Females aged 25-35 years The overall study finding was that financial issues, the apparent need for sexual variety, quest for material possession, and the impact of unemployment, migration and alcohol abuse are seen as some of the major factors underlying MCP in Botswana. The O Icheke Multiple Concurrent Partnership campaign was positively viewed as playing a key role in addressing the apparent knowledge gap regarding the impacts of these partnerships and in changing people‘s attitudes towards MCP and discouraging wide sexual networks. The campaign‘s target population, funding, stakeholders and delivery mode of the program were identified as its pillars and an effective vehicle to achieve its goals. The consultation between funding office and implementing organisations, coverage of the programme in surrounding areas and growing non-profit organisation were identified to affect the MCP campaign to achieve its goals. The recommendation is that more has to be done to improve the implementation of O Icheke programme through more funding, consultation with programme implementers, tailor made for people with disability and covering surrounding areas. The recommendation is that more has to be done to improve the implementation of O Icheke programme through more funding, consultation and capacity building of volunteers. / Health Studies / M.A. (Social Behaviour Studies in HIV and AIDS)

The study sought to explore and describe the risk behaviour regarding HIV transmission among youth in Bulawayo, their knowledge of HIV transmission and the sources of information on HIV transmission accessible to them. A quantitative, descriptive exploratory design was used and 238 youth from three secondary schools in Bulawayo, the second largest city in Zimbabwe were the respondents. The Health Belief Model (HBM) was used to facilitate and acquire insight into the risk behaviour among the youth. The inferences drawn from the study were that youth have inadequate knowledge about HIV transmission and therefore do not fully understand their risk of infection. Youth also find shyness and fear of rejection serious barriers to communicating openly about sexuality, sexual and HIV/AIDS issues. The findings of the study have implications for programmes to limit HIV transmission among youth and should assist policymakers and educators in developing and implementing such programmes in order to improve the health of youth in Zimbabwe. / Health Studies / M.A. (Health Studies)