Phase change materials (PCMs) are a viable option for compact thermal energy storage. Effective designs using PCMs require accurate knowledge of the thermal and physical properties, but for many PCMs these are not well known, and when known the knowledge is sometimes contradictory. Therefore, physical characteristics of several promising PCMs (K3PO4·7H2O, FeCl3·6H2O, Mn(NO3)2·4H2O) were determined. In addition, a life cycle assessment (LCA) of dodecanoic acid in a solar thermal energy storage system was carried out to determine the environmental impact for energy storage. This LCA showed that dodecanoic acid in a solar energy system would save energy and facilitate CO2 reductions. However, the economic cost is high and is unlikely to be implemented without incentives. Finally an experimental testbed for a solar thermal system utilizing dodecanoic acid was built. Preliminary measurements demonstrated the utility of this system.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:33:33Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2007-10-24Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T20:05:37Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 oliveira_al_dr_jabo.pdf: 487509 bytes, checksum: 21986f8f6599c47af5da518d2f78570b (MD5) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / Foi estudada a eliminação de calor latente e estimado o fluxo térmico total ao sol e à sombra em cabras da raça Saanen mantidas em ambiente tropical, visando determinar importância da termólise evaporativa para esses animais e proporcionar subsídios para o estabelecimento de métodos de manejo em ambiente tropical. A evaporação total foi determinada por processo gravimétrico, usando-se um sistema de pesagem de precisão. A evaporação cutânea foi obtida por determinação direta através de uma cápsula ventilada; e a evaporação respiratória estimada a partir do fluxo térmico entre aparelho respiratório e o ambiente; determinaram-se ainda a estocagem térmica e as trocas convectivas e radiativas. Por ocasião de cada determinação, foram registradas a temperatura retal, a freqüência respiratória e a temperatura da superfície corporal, bem como variáveis ambientais: temperatura e umidade do ar, velocidade do vento e temperatura do globo negro. Foram avaliadas as características morfológicas do pelame (espessura da capa, comprimento médio, densidade numérica e ângulo dos pêlos) para cada animal. As análises estatísticas basearam-se no método dos quadrados mínimos para dados não-balanceados, tendo o modelo linear geral proposto incluído os efeitos: ambiente (fixo), animal (aleatório), interação animal x ambiente e regressão sobre a temperatura do ar, a umidade relativa, a temperatura radiante média, a temperatura da superfície corporal, a temperatura retal, a freqüência respiratória e a idade do animal, além das características morfológicas do pelame, no caso da evaporação cutânea. A termólise evaporativa compreendeu 61,5% da perda de calor para o ambiente, sendo a única via de perda térmica possível ao sol sob temperaturas radiante média acima de 35ºC... / The present work aimed at to study the elimination of latent heat and esteem the total thermal flow to the sun and the shade in Saanen goats in tropical environment, to determine importance of evaporative heat loss these animals and to provide subsidies for the establishment of methods of handling in tropical environment. The total evaporation was determined by means of gravimetrical process, for a weighing system of precision. The cutaneous evaporation was gotten by direct determination, by means of a ventilated capsule; the respiratory evaporation gotten by calculations of heat flow of respiratory device for environment. It was determined still the heat storage and the convective and radiative exchanges. For occasion of each determination, the rectal temperature, respiratory rate and surface temperature of the animal, as well as meteorological data: air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and black globe temperature were register. The morphologic characteristics of the hair coat (coat thickness, hair length, numerical density and hair angle to skin) had been evaluated for each animal. The statistical analyses were carried through by the lest-squares method for not-balanced data. The considered model included the effect of environment and animal and the covariates: air temperature, relative humidity, mean radiating temperature, surface temperature, rectal temperature, respiratory rate and age of animal, beyond the morphologic characteristics of the hair coat for cutaneous evaporation. Heat loss evaporative understands 62.2% of the heat carried for environment exchange, being the way possible to the sun under radiant temperatures above of 35º...(Complete abstract, click electronic access below)

This thesis investigates the feasibility and benefits of integrating Thermochemical heat Storage (THS) into a CHP (Combined Heat and Power) plant. A case study is done for the CHP-plant in Sala, Sweden, with a maximum heat output of 20.9 MW and maximum electricity output of 9.6 MW. The THS type considered is calcium oxide in a hydroxide system. The fluctuations in electricity price for years 2020, 2030 and 2040 are considered and low-price electricity is used as a charging source for THS. During charging the superheated steam (endothermic reaction) is used to cover some of the district heating demand. The high temperature discharge from the THS is used as reheat in the Rankine cycle. The operations are modeled in Ebsilon and optimization is done in MATLAB using genetic algorithm with the objective to achieve maximum annual revenue. The results suggest that it is not feasible to introduce THS with electricity as a charging source in year 2020, but in 2030 and 2040 THS shows promising potential. The biggest increase in revenue comes from reduced fuel consumption, and, to a lesser extent, increased income from electricity. It is concluded that Calcium hydroxide is a promising candidate for integration into CHP during large electricity price fluctuation. The main drivers for the feasibility of this combination are high fuel price and large fluctuations of electricity price.

Submitted by Irene Nascimento (irene.kessia@ufpe.br) on 2016-11-08T18:16:29Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) DISSERTAÇÃO (RAUL XAVIER).pdf: 7673146 bytes, checksum: 78c15f2215008f6151a91e0b52d56488 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-11-08T18:16:29Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) DISSERTAÇÃO (RAUL XAVIER).pdf: 7673146 bytes, checksum: 78c15f2215008f6151a91e0b52d56488 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-06-20 / CNPQ / O presente estudo teve como objetivo geral, avaliar a temperatura da superfície de alguns materiais utilizados na pavimentação do solo, de recintos urbanos na cidade do Recife-PE, visando determinar a contribuição desses materiais nas mudanças das variáveis climáticas, sobretudo para o aumento da temperatura e para a redução da umidade relativa do ar, objetivando mitigar os impactos das superfícies impermeabilizadas na qualidade ambiental dos recintos urbanos e melhorar o conforto térmico dos citadinos. Para isto, foram utilizadas duas imagens do sensor TM, a bordo do satélite Landsat 5, e elaborada uma classificação das temperaturas de superfície na cidade do Recife. Foi selecionado um recorte espacial, representativo de maior temperatura que corresponde ao 1ª Jardim de Boa Viagem, zona sul da cidade. A partir dos aspectos da morfologia urbana e características de uso e ocupação do solo, foram selecionados quatro pontos para a coleta de dados climáticos. Caracterizou-se o perfil microclimático do local e identificaram-se nove tipos de materiais de pavimentação. Em seguida mediram-se as temperaturas de superfície de cada material relacionando-os com as variáveis climáticas e os aspectos da forma urbana do local. Os materiais de pavimentação que apresentaram as maiores temperaturas de superfície tenderam a possuir cores escuras, como o asfalto, pedras portuguesas nas cores pretas, blocos de concreto intertravado nas cores vermelho e cinza-escuro e o concreto, apesar de possuir uma coloração cinza-claro. Estes materiais possuem baixos valores de albedo, visto que absorvem grandes quantidades de radiação solar, armazenados em seu interior, sob a forma de calor. Outro ponto a ser destacado, é a impermeabilidade dos materiais. As superfícies que apresentam as maiores temperaturas tendem a ser totalmente impermeáveis, ou seja, superfícies que não possuem poros, impedindo que a água da chuva escoe por entre os pavimentos e seja armazenada nas camadas e no solo abaixo dele. Em dias ensolarados, a água, quando evapora, resfria o pavimento. O presente estudo constatou que os materiais mais utilizados no revestimento do solo urbano são os que possuem as maiores temperaturas de superfície. Portanto, recomenda-se a preservação de áreas verdes e da arborização já existente; a elaboração de políticas públicas que incentivem a implantação da vegetação dentro de grandes empreendimentos imobiliários e industriais, ou seja, um maior percentual de utilização do terreno destinados a vegetação. / This study aimed to evaluate the surface temperature of some materials used in the ground paving, urban venues in the city of Recife-PE, in order to determine the contribution of each material changes in climate variables, especially the increase in temperature and reducing the relative humidity of form to mitigate the impacts of impervious surfaces in the environmental quality of urban precincts and improve the thermal comfort of city dwellers. For this, two TM images were used aboard the Landsat 5 satellite, and elaborated a classification of surface temperatures in the city of Recife. It selected a spatial area, representative of higher temperature that corresponds to the 1st Garden Boa Viagem, area south of the city. From the aspects of urban morphology and characteristics of use and occupation of land, four points were selected for the collection of weather data, the microclimate of the local profile was characterized and were identified nine types of paving materials. In a row were measured surface temperatures of each material relating them to the climatic variables and aspects of urban form of the site. The paving materials with the highest surface temperatures tended to have dark colors, such as asphalt, Portuguese stones in black colors, concrete blocks interlocked in red and dark gray, and the concrete itself, despite having a gray color -of course. These materials have low albedo values, since they absorb large amounts of solar radiation stored therein in the form of heat. Another point to note is the impermeability of the materials. The surfaces that exhibit higher temperatures tend to be totally impervious, ie, surfaces that do not have pores as they allow rain water to drain through the floor and be stored in the layers beneath it and ground. On sunny days, when the water evaporates, it cools the pavement. This study found that the most commonly used materials in the urban floor coverings, are those with the highest surface temperatures. Therefore recommends the preservation of green areas and the existing trees; the development of public policies that encourage the establishment of vegetation in large real estate and industrial projects, ie, a higher percentage of use of the land for the planting of seedlings.

Orientador: Kamal Abdel Radi Ismail / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Mecanica / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-14T07:25:07Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Paixao_LouryvalCoelho_M.pdf: 3782849 bytes, checksum: a8900089f4a65a6ee50cdc15b2dba208 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009 / Resumo: O processo de solidificação de um material de mudança de fase em uma região anular ao redor de um cilindro resfriado pela passagem de um fluido em seu interior é estudado numérica e experimentalmente, objetivando aplicações em sistemas de armazenamento de calor latente. A solução do problema de mudança de fase é feita utilizando o método de imobilização de fronteiras, onde se aplica a transformada de coordenadas de forma que no novo sistema a fronteira móvel e irregular seja fixa e paralela às demais. O método de volumes finitos é usado para discretização das equações do modelo matemático que em seguidas são resolvidas computacionalmente. Os experimentos são realizados para 4 temperaturas e 3 números de Reynolds do fluido de trabalho: -5, -10, -15, -20ºC e 741, 1484, 2280 respectivamente. Posteriormente, foi introduzido um promotor de turbulência helicoidal para aumentar o coeficiente de transferência de calor onde foram realizados 6 experimentos para temperaturas de -10, -15ºC e, com os mesmos números de Reynolds anteriores. Os resultados experimentais foram comparados com os resultados numéricos. / Abstract: The process of solidification of a material of change of phase in a region annular around of a cylinder cooled by fluid passing in its interior is studied numerical and experimentally, objectifying applications in systems of storage of latent heat. The boundary immobilization technique is used for solving for phase-change problem. The coordinate transformation is performed so that in the new system the moving and irregular boundary become fixes and parallel to the others. The finite-volume methodology is used discretization of the equation from the mathematical model witch are than solved by a computer program. The experiments are made for 4 temperatures and 3 Reynolds numbers of the fluid: 741, 1484, and 2280 respectively. A turbulence promoter was insert inner tube to enhancement the coefficient of heat transference, where 6 experiments were made to -10 and -15ºC temperature with the previous Reynolds numbers. The experimental results had been compared with the numerical results. / Mestrado / Termica e Fluidos / Mestre em Engenharia Mecânica

Orientador: Kamal Abdel Radi Ismail / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Mecanica / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-11T03:46:08Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Moraes_RaykleisonIgordosReis_M.pdf: 1558122 bytes, checksum: e287784c470caf116d151f9f9cc61f17 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008 / Resumo: O presente trabalho procurou obter de uma forma detalhada o processo de formação de gelo no interior de cápsulas esféricas e geometrias alternativas recicláveis para o armazenamento de energia térmica, utilizando água e água-polietilenoglicol como PCM. Foi montada uma bancada de teste composta de um tanque de resfriamento e controlada com precisão de. As cápsulas utilizadas nos testes foram incrementadas com termopares tipo T, calibrados e localizados no centro da cápsula para investigar o efeito da solidificação do material. A faixa de variação de temperatura para os ensaios foram de - 25 à 5 ºC. Em seguida é apresentado um modelo matemático transiente em coordenadas esféricas e simulado usando a aproximação por diferenças finitas com o esquema da grade móvel. Os resultados experimentais são discutidos e as variáveis pesquisadas incluíram alguns parâmetros tais como: tempo de solidificação, temperatura do fluido de trabalho, concentração de polietilenoglicol, material da cápsula, velocidade, posição da frente de solidificação e o tamanho da cápsula no processo térmico de solidificação. O modelamento, junto com os resulta- dos experimentais forneceram parâmetros para construção de um armazenador modular para fins residenciais / Abstract: The present work looked for to get of a detailed form the similar process of icing in the interior of spherical capsules and geometrias for the storage of thermal energy being used water and water-polietilenoglicol as PCM. A composed group of benches of test of a controlled tank of cooling and with precision was mounted of ±1 ºC. Capsules used in the tests had been developed with thermocouples type T, calibrated and located in the center of the capsule to investigate the effect of the solidification of the material. The band of variation of temperature for the assays had been of 25 a 5 ºC. After that a transient in spherical coordinates is presented and simulated mathematic model using the approach for finite differences with the project of the movel scheme. The experimental results had been presented and argued some parameters such as: time for solidification, working fluid, concentration, capsule material , velocity and position of the solidification front and the size of the capsule in the thermal process of solidification. However, the together modeling with the experimental results had supplied parameters storing construction of a modular one for residential ends / Mestrado / Termica e Fluidos / Mestre em Engenharia Mecânica

Les procédés de stockage de chaleur haute température par voie thermochimique solide/gaz présentent un grand intérêt pour des applications à des centrales solaires thermodynamiques. Le couple réactif CaO/Ca(OH)2 est adapté à cette application pour des déstockages entre 350 et 550°C sous des pressions de vapeur entre 0,2 et 2bar. Les paramètres de transferts de chaleur et de masse de lits de Ca(OH)2+GNE ont été évalués au travers de corrélations et d'expérimentations. Des expérimentations ont permis d'atteindre des puissances en réaction de déstockage supérieures à 200kW.m-3 pour des durées compatibles avec les centrales solaires (1 à 15h). Un modèle 2D a été développé, validé et exploité afin d'étudier les influences couplées des différents paramètres sur les performances du TCS. Enfin, l'intérêt de différentes configurations d'intégration du TCS dans la centrale solaire ont été mis en évidence en termes de performances et de puissances thermiques échangées avec les sources et puits. / High-temperature heat storage processes using thermochemical solid/gas reaction exhibit great interest for applications in solar thermodynamic power plants. The reactive pair CaO/Ca(OH)2 is suitable for this recovery step application ranging from 350 to 550°C within steam pressures from 0.2 to 2 bar. Heat and mass transfer Ca(OH)2+GNE beds parameters were evaluated through correlations and experimentations. Experiments achieved recovery reaction powers above 200kW.m-3 for compatible durations with solar power plants (1 to 15 hours). A 2D model was developed, validated and exploited to study the coupled influences of different parameters on the performance of TCS. Finally, the benefit of different configurations of TCS integration within the solar power plant have been highlighted in terms of thermal performances and sources and sinks power exchanges.

Sverige har klimatmålet att nå negativa utsläpp av växthusgaser efter 2045 och det har en stor betydelse för att kunna uppnå Parisavtalet. Året 2021 stod bostäder och service för 43 % av den totala slutliga energianvändningen i Sverige och en minskning av den här användningen genom energieffektivisering är ett steg åt rätt riktning. Villa Ehrling byggdes 1982 i Falun och var tidigt ute med unika lösningar. I arbetet kartläggs de olika energieffektiviserande åtgärderna som förekommer i energivillan och energiberäkningar har genomförts över husets energiprestanda och klimatskal. Resultatet jämförs med dagens krav och andra lågenergihus för att avgöra om idéerna i villan kan implementeras än idag på nybyggnationer. Det primära syftet med villan är att utnyttja aktiv och passiv solenergi med vatten-och luftsolfångare samt lagra solenergi i villans stomme. Genom en unik utformning av fasaden med en 70 graders takvinkel, samt en orientering av byggnaden med stora glasspartier åt sydväst, kan värme tillföras från solinstrålningen under stora delar av året men också avskärmas under sommaren då solen står högre på himlen och värmebehovet är lägre. Utöver det har fasaden designats för att minska energiförluster från kall vind från norr med en låg takvinkel på 26 grader och begränsat antal fönsterytor. Villans ventilationssystem förvärmer tilluften genom lagrad värme i marken och återvinner värmen i frånluften. Överskottsvärmen kan lagras i ett stenmagasin under huset bestående av kullersten och tas ut när behovet finns. Ytterligare energieffektiviserande lösningar som förekommer i villan är återanvändandet av spillvärmen i avloppet med en avloppsvärmeväxlare. Resultatet av studien visar att villa Ehrling har en energiprestanda som varierar beroende på beteendet hos boende från omkring 35 % till 75 % lägre än de krav som ställs på nybyggnationer enligt Boverkets byggregler. Det här innebär att villan uppnår en hög energiklassificeringen med betygen A eller B än idag och hamnar i samma klassificering som andra lågenergihus. Byggnaden har en genomsnittlig värmegenomgångskoefficient på 0,314 W/(m2 K) vilket nästan uppfyller det högsta tillåtna värdet på denna koefficient idag. Jämfört med moderna lågenergihus fann den här studien att klimatskalet på villa Ehrling var mycket sämre. Slutsatsen från detta arbete är att trots villa Ehrling byggdes omkring 40 år sedan är det en villa som är mycket relevant än idag, både prestandamässigt och att mycket av husets energieffektiviserande lösningar är vanligt förekommande i nybyggnationer och andra lågenergihus idag. / Sweden has the goal of reaching negative emissions in the year 2045 to be able to reach the Paris agreement. In the year 2021, 43 % of the total energy consumption in Sweden came from housing and service and more efficient buildings is a step in the right direction. Villa Ehrling was built in 1982 in Falun, Sweden, with some interesting concepts. This report will present the concepts of the building and calculations that cover the performance of the house and its envelope. The results are compared with the requirement of how well insulated a house should be when built today. The performance and concepts of Villa Ehrling is also compared with other low-energy buildings to determine if some of Ehrlings concepts are of any use to implement in other buildings. The primary purpose of villa Ehrling is to utilize solar energy actively with air and water solar collectors, and passively by storing heat in building parts. A unique design of the façade, with and an orientation towards southwest with large areas of glass and a roof with an angle of 70 degrees, enables the ability to absorb solar heat during larger parts of the year and block the sun rays during summer when the heat demand is low. The façade contains small areas of glass towards northeast and a low roof angle of 26 degrees to reduce energy losses causes by cold winds.The ventilation system utilizes stored heat in the ground to preheat incoming air. The heat in the outflowing air is also utilized to preheat incoming air. Villa Ehrling has a heat storage made of cobblestone where energy is provided by heated air, and the energy can be extracted when the need occurs. Heat from showers and hot tap water usage is used in a heat exchanger and preheats tap water.The result of the study shows that villa Ehrling has an energy performance that varies depending on the behaviour of residents from about 35 % to 75 % lower than the requirements for new constructions according to the Swedish National Board of Housing, Building and Planning's building regulations. This means that the villa achieves a high energy classification with the grade A or B even today and ends up in the same classification as other low-energy houses. The building has an average heat transfer coefficient of 0.314 W/(m2 K), which almost meets the maximum permissible value of this coefficient today. Compared to modern low-energy houses, this study found that the envelope of villa Ehrling was much worse.The conclusion from this work is that despite villa Ehrling being built about 40 years ago, it is a villa that is very relevant even today, both in terms of the energy performance and that much of the house's energy efficient solutions are common in new buildings and other low-energy houses today.

The significant increase in energy requirements across the world, provides several opportunities for innovative methods to be developed to facilitate the storage and utilization of energy. The major energy demand is in the form of electrical energy for domestic as well as industrial sectors, a large part of which are the heating and cooling requirements. Appropriate utilization of thermal energy storage can effectively aid in reducing the electrical demand by storage and release of this thermal energy during peak hours. Thermal Energy Storage using Phase Change Materials (PCMs) is an attractive method of energy storage, with a wide variety of potential applications. Several configurations have been tested by researchers to develop energy storage devices with PCMs. The cycling of melting and solidification of PCMs results in storage and release of heat at a relatively small temperature difference. Design and deployment of these storage systems have certain challenges and considerations associated to them for instance, when used in buildings, PCMs should be non-toxic, non-corrosive, and others. In this thesis, we aim to provide models for designing Latent Thermal Energy Storage (LTES) devices with PCMs, based on their operating conditions, thermophysical properties of materials, and geometric parameters. The models are developed considering fluid dynamics and heat transfer involved in melting and solidification of PCMs. Parameters like inlet temperature and velocity, and volume of storage container are varied to determine the time taken for melting or solidification. For sizing and predicting performance of the storage devices we aim at presenting an analytical correlation, with time taken for melting as the variable defining the ‘charging/discharging time’ of storage device. Along with this, a transient model is developed to predict amount of PCM melted/solidified, along with rate of latent energy storage in defined time period intervals.

Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The increased necessity to obtain power from other sources than conventional fossil fuels has led to the growing interest in solar power. The problem with the proposed technology is that it can only provide power during the day and therefore requires some sort of storage system, if power is to be supplied throughout the day and night. A number of storage systems exist, but the one of particular interest for this research, is packed rock beds. Rock beds have the advantage that if designed right, they have the potential to be one of the most cost effective means of storing thermal energy for solar power plants. Discrete Element Models (DEM) of rock beds were therefore developed through both experimental and numerical procedures, by conducting a series of sensitivity, calibration and verification studies. The developed models were then used to study various aspects associated with rock beds, which were either too impractical, impossible or too expensive to conduct through actual experimental work. This research focused specifically on the potential of constructing self-supporting tunnels within the rock beds in order to improve the air flow uniformity through the bed, while minimizing the pressure drop. It was observed that if the appropriate steps were followed, stable self-supporting tunnels could be formed. Valuable information such as the rock orientations resulting from different packing directions could also be derived from the models and finally, a method to convert the DEM models into the appropriate format such that it could be imported into a CFD preprocessor for future CFD studies, was developed. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die verhoogde noodsaaklikheid om energie te verkry uit ander bronne as konvensionele fossielbrandstowwe, het gelei tot die groeiende belangstelling in sonkrag energie. Die probleem met die voorgestelde tegnologie is dat dit net energie gedurende die dag kan voorsien en dus word daar ’n stoorstelsel benodig indien energie deur beide die dag en nag voorsien moet word. Tans bestaan daar wel ’n aantal van hierdie stoorstelsels, maar die een wat van besondere belang is in hierdie navorsing, is verpakte klip beddens. Klip beddens het die voordeel dat, indien dit reg ontwerp is, dit oor die potensiaal beskik om een van die mees koste-doeltreffende middels te wees vir die stoor van termiese energie vir sonkragstasies. Diskreet Element Modelle (DEM) van die klip beddens is ontwikkel deur gebruik te maak van beide experimentele en numeriese metodes waartydens ’n reeks sensitiwiteits-, kalibrasie- en verifiëring studies uitgevoer is. Die ontwikkelde modelle is gebruik om verskeie aspekte van klip beddens te ondersoek, wat of te onprakties, onmoontlik of te duur is vanuit ’n eksperimentele oogpunt. Hierdie navorsing het spesifiek gefokus op die potensiaal om self-ondersteunende tonnels binne in die klip beddens te vorm, ten einde die egaligheid van die lugvloei deur die bed te verbeter, terwyl die drukval geminimeer word. Daar is waargeneem dat stabiele self-ondersteunende tonnels wel gevorm kon word indien die toepaslike stappe gevolg is. Waardevolle inligting soos die klip oriëntasies wat as gevolg van die verskillende verpakkings rigtings onstaan kon ook vanuit die model verkry word. Ten slotte is ’n metode ontwikkel om die DEM modelle na die toepaslike formaat te omskep sodat dit ten einde gebruik kan word in numeriese vloeidinamika studies.