O presente trabalho analisa a trajetória dos sujeitos vazios e expressos na norma lingüística efetivamente utilizada pela elite paulistana, em fins do século XIX até a década de 1930, quando S. Paulo recebeu grande afluxo de imigrantes usuários de \"línguas de sujeito nulo\". Partindo de uma avaliação crítica do \"variacionismo paramétrico\", baseado em Labov e Chomsky, propomos o \"gerativismo trans-sistêmico\". Nessa perspectiva, a língua é gerada em dois níveis: no nível de origem biológica e inata, a faculdade da linguagem, após amadurecimento, dota o indivíduo de \"competência lingüística\"; no nível de natureza social, o habitus, depois de internalizado, o proverá de \"capital lingüístico\", tal qual proposto por Bourdieu. Temos, assim, um módulo gerativo que permite ao indivíduo oferecer seus produtos no mercado lingüístico altamente concentrado. A análise de corpora lingüísticos nos levou a concluir que a elite, apesar de fazer um maior uso do sujeito vazio, já incrementava o uso dos expressos, fenômeno já bem avançado no dialeto caipira. Tal comportamento é explicado por fatores estruturais internos à língua, e também expressa, do ponto de vista histórico-social, uma clara opção por uma forma lingüística que se opunha à norma dos imigrantes, tal qual previsto no habitus da elite. / This paper analyses the trajectory of empty subjects and overt subjects in the standard language of the elite of São Paulo from the late XIX century to 1930s, when that city received a large influx of immigrants, who were speakers of languages with null subject . Starting from a critic assessment of the \"parametric variacionism\", based on Labov and Chomsky, we propose the \"trans-systemic generativism\". From this perspective, language is generated in two levels: in the biological and innate level, the language faculty, after matured, endows the individual with \"linguistic competence\"; in the social level, the habitus, after internalized, provides the individual with \"linguistic capital\", as proposed by Bourdieu. Therefore we believe that there is a generative module that allows individuals to offer their products in the highly concentrated linguistic market. The analysis of the linguistic corpora led us to conclude that the elite, despite making more use of empty subject, was already boosting the use of overt subjects, a phenomenon well advanced in the caipira dialect. This behavior is explained by structural factors internal to language, and also expressed, from the social-historical standpoint, a clear choice of a linguistic form as opposed to the standard language of immigrants, as established by the habitus of the elite.

This dissertation analyses the formation of Swedish cultural policy in the twentieth century and the emergence of a modern concept of cultural policy. The aim is to historicise this concept by opening up the process through which it was established. The dissertation explores different aspects of this process: the use of the word cultural policy (kulturpolitik), the ambitions in the 1960s to establish a form of knowledge production relevant in cultural policy making and the attempts made by various official authorities in the 1960s and early 1970s to identify and manage the field of concerns defined as belonging to cultural policy, thus demarcating culture as a formal area of policy making. I view these as examples of practices where the category of cultural policy was elaborated and established in a form widely recognized today. Accompanying my attempts to historicise the modern concept of cultural policy is an interest in how the history of cultural policy has generally been conceived. In previous research devoted to the history of cultural policy an analytical sense of cultural policy has tended to overrule the understanding(s) of cultural policy found in the historical sources. As a consequence, the histories of cultural policy have left out what historically was identified as cultural policy, thus leaving the historical grounds for the modern concept of cultural policy partly hidden. In the first empirical chapter I examine the uses of the word cultural policy when it was introduced in the Swedish language in the late nineteenth century until the 1950s. From a multitude of usages, I suggest that it was in the mid-twentieth century that a more consistent vocabulary developed, with “cultural policy” referring to political endeavors aiming at a nation’s domestic cultural life. In the second empirical chapter I investigate how scientific conceptualisations and operationalisations rendered culture available for scientific, political and administrative undertakings, and in the third chapter I study how culture was demarcated as a formal area of policy making. The chapters reveal different aspects of the historical process through which the category of cultural policy was established in its present shape.

La thèse est consacrée à l’œuvre de portraitiste de Parmigianino au cours des deux périodes parmesanes de sa carrière, depuis sa naissance en 1503 jusqu’à son départ pour Rome en 1524, puis de 1531 à 1540, date de son décès. L’objet de la recherche est d’élucider les significations propres à chacune des effigies du corpus et d’analyser les processus plastiques et sémantiques par lesquels le peintre a élaboré les discours figuratifs que constituent ses portraits, dans le contexte de leur commande, production et réception. A cette fin, on a opté pour une approche pluridisciplinaire. La thèse débute par une étude de l’histoire artistique de Parme de 1500 à 1540 et une analyse des pratiques du portrait dans cette ville, au regard de ses nombreuses relations avec d’autres centres culturels et artistiques (Milan, Venise, Bologne, Florence et Rome). L’histoire sociale et politique de Parme pendant la première moitié du Cinquecento est un autre sujet de la recherche. Son objet est l’articulation des transformations institutionnelles au sein de la comune, les conquêtes par plusieurs pouvoirs étrangers entre 1499 et 1520 jusqu’à la création du duché de Parme et Piacenza par Paul III en 1545 avec le marché et les pratiques du portrait. Après cette étude du contexte, chacun des portraits de Parmigianino est examiné de façon approfondie, à travers une approche trans-disciplinaire qui associe histoire de l’art, histoire culturelle (littérature, du livre et de l’édition, emblématique, traditions de la rhétorique, débats linguistiques), histoire sociale et politique. / The dissertation deals with Parmigianino’s activity as a portraitist during the two periods of time he spent in his native Parma, between 1503 and 1524 and then between 1531 and 1540. Its aim is to analyze the painter’s male portraits in particular, that is to to clarify their specific significances and, at the same time, to elucidate the visual and semantic processes through which Parmigianino elaborated the figurative discourses that his portraits convey, in the artistic, cultural, social and political context of their creation. To reach this goal, several methodological approaches are used. The disseration begins with a close study of the artistic history of Parma between 1500 and 1540 and an analysis of the traditions related to portraiture in the city, with regard to its many cultural and political relations to other regions and states (Milan, Venice, Bologna, Florence and Rome). The political history of Parma during the first half of the Cinquencento is an other field of research. Its purpose is to articulate the many institutionnal transformations of the comune, the conquest of Parma by several foreign powers between 1499 and 1520, until the creation of the Duchy of Parma and Piacenza by Pope Paul III, with the market and practices of portraiture. After this close examination of the context, Parmigianino’s portraits are analyzed through a trans-disciplinary approach that deals with art history, cultural history (literature, history of the book, emblems, traditions of rethoric, linguistic debates), social and political history).

El objetivo de este estudio es investigar la secuencia y las funciones de un tipo de marcador discursivo denominado apéndice generalizador en textos del siglo XVI. Los apéndices generalizadores son marcadores discursivos que van introducidos por la conjunción ‘o’ o ‘y’ y su función primaria es la de generalizar el significado del miembro discursivo a que va añadido. Nuestro estudio enfoca los apéndices del tipo ‘o cosa(s)’ en textos del siglo XVI e investigamos cuales son las funciones discursivos que cumplen los apéndices en los textos y en qué nivel discursivo operan. Los diferentes niveles discutidos son la modalización del significado, la autorregulación, la intersubjetividad y la fuerza ilocutiva. Analizamos los apéndices generalizadores según su función pragmática y presentamos distintos casos de las diferentes funciones que asumen en el discurso. Llegamos a la conclusión que los apéndices generalizadores operan en tres de los cuatro niveles discursivos a saber en el nivel de la modalización del significado, de la autorregulación y de la fuerza ilocutiva con la excepción del nivel de la intersubjetividad donde no encontramos ningún apéndice.

This thesis aims to explore an aspect of the history of vernacular speech through analysis of some eighteenth century verse texts. These satirical anti-Jesuit pamphlets by Nicolas Jouin, known as the 'Sarcelades', were collected posthumously in 'Le Vrai Recueil des Sarcelles' of 1764. The texts purport to be in the patois of the peasants of Sarcelles and show features which may be paralleled in the vernacular speech of Paris and elsewhere, and even correspond with features of contemporary colloquial French. The study may appeal to French historical sociolinguists interested in reconstructing spoken language of the past, and particularly in the history of vernacular speech of Paris since the Middle Ages through to the eighteenth century, in the context of the development of urban dialects. In order to set the scene for a linguistic description of Jouin’s work the limited biographical information available was collated. Then a period of bibliographical research led to acquisition of copies of the texts which were to be studied in order to identify and examine their non-standard linguistic features. Firstly the process of growth of urban dialects was discussed, and then the development of the Paris vernacular in particular. Then attention was turned to direct written evidence in the form of commentary and to a number of texts from the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries containing features of the Paris vernacular. These had already been analysed by certain historical linguists, although the texts in the 'Sarcelades' had hitherto only been briefly mentioned. However, here they are considered to be of sufficient interest to be examined more closely, although it had to be established whether Jouin’s texts containing a selection of non-standard features could be regarded as an accurate depiction of the Paris vernacular at the period. The non-standard phonetic, morphological, syntactic, and lexical features in the texts were therefore compared with findings in other texts by previous commentators. Following these analyses it was noted to what extent the relative frequency of the variables correlates with the salience of certain features in popular speech in Paris at the period, as already observed in other texts by previous commentators, and it was concluded that in general established characteristics of the 'patois de Paris' at the period are to be found in the 'Sarcelades', even though there do remain certain features which do not appear to be generally attested elsewhere. Nevertheless, despite reservations concerning the authenticity of some of the non-standard features employed by Jouin, by bringing attention to this little-known series of texts this study may help to claim a place for the Sarcelades amongst the corpus of texts which reflect aspects of the lower-class sociolect, the 'patois de Paris', at the period.

This thesis deals with an identity of young Romanies. About its development, meaning and importance when searching for oneself. To understand the significance of finding the Romanian youth´s identity, it is essential to get familiar with their culture, traditions, way of life etc. In the theoretical part it is possible to find the topic of personal development with relation to free time, its importance with creating a personality and educational methods applied to working with Romanian youth coming out of {\clq}qgood experience``. The practical part focuses on fieldwork. The research is a verification of hypotheses that were set at the beginning of the work. The next part of the research are new facts that have been found by the author during the realization of the research in fieldwork. This work is supposed to provide an educationalist a complex view of the problems connected with the identity development of the Romanian identity.