The social conditions in the rural areas of South Africa are by now widely known and numerous researchers have documented the poverty stricken quality of life which generally prevails amongst black families in these areas (Wilson and Ramphele, 1989). The vast majority of rural households have incomes which are below subsistence levels and in the Homelands, agricultural productive ability has become so eroded that rural household income is now chiefly derived from remittances from migrants in the towns or from the wages of farm labourers (Nattrass and May, 1986). As such, at present the majority of black rural households living in Region E make up consumer communities which must purchase the majority of their subsistence needs, rather than producer communities in which subsistence needs can be met from the utilisation of local resources (Derman and Poultney, 1983). Despite this unpromising situation, the diminishing importance of agricultural production to the South African national economy (Bethlehem, 1989), and the dominance of urbanisation as a social force, it can be argued that the rural areas of Region E will be directly and substantially affected by efforts to restructure the South African economy as a whole. Consequently, revitalising the rural economy in a restructured social and economic system would be a concern in itself, even though the effect of this for a future growth path for South Africa may be uncertain (Kaplinsky, 1991:54). The report will first examine the broad demographic changes in Region E noting the impact of these changes on the rural areas. Thereafter, the economic processes which characterise the rural areas will be discussed, in particular, employment, income levels and income distribution. This will feed into a discussion of the social processes which will include changing dynamics of migration, and a socio-economic profile of rural households. The paper concludes by briefly examining access and usage of basic services and facilities in the rural parts of Region E.

Introdução. Atualmente, inquéritos de saúde de base populacional utilizam diferentes estratégias para a obtenção de dados, como as entrevistas domiciliares e telefônicas, com a finalidade de monitorar fatores de risco e avaliar o acesso e utilização dos serviços de saúde, sendo essenciais no planejamento de políticas públicas em saúde. Objetivo. Estudar a aplicação de algumas ferramentas estatísticas utilizadas para a comparação de estimativas obtidas por diferentes inquéritos, construção de ajustes de pósestratificação e aplicação de técnicas de estimação em pequenas áreas, utilizando dados de inquéritos de saúde de base populacional realizados em áreas do Estado de São Paulo. Metodologia. Utilizando o módulo survey do pacote estatístico Stata nas versões 10.0 e 11.0 foram feitos três trabalhos. O primeiro (artigo 1) comparou estimativas segundo tipo de inquérito (domiciliar ISA-Capital 2008 e telefônico VIGITEL-SP 2008) por meio de regressão de Poisson ajustada por idade e escolaridade. O segundo (artigo 2) comparou ajustes de pós-estratificação utilizando distintos conjuntos de variáveis e três diferentes estratégias (ponderação por célula, técnica rake e uma terceira técnica combinada entre o ajuste por célula e a técnica rake). O terceiro (artigo 3) utilizou cinco técnicas (diretas e indiretas) de estimação em pequenas áreas para a obtenção de prevalências de características de saúde para uma área menor do Município de São Paulo (Distrito de Saúde do Butantã). Resultados. Não foram encontradas diferenças estatisticamente significantes entre as estimativas obtidas pelo VIGITEL e ISA-Capital para as prevalências de realização de mamografia no último ano. No entanto, para as estimativas globais de realização do exame de Papanicolaou alguma vez na vida, no último ano e de mamografia na vida, foi possível verificar diferenças, com prevalências de cobertura superiores entre as entrevistadas pelo inquérito telefônico (artigo 1). Aplicando a técnica de pós-estratificação rake, foram observadas as maiores reduções de vício, principalmente quando consideradas as variáveis sociodemográficas, associadas a cada uma das características de saúde analisadas (artigo 2). As estimativas de pequenas áreas de diferentes características de saúde obtidas por meio da calibração e via modelagem, considerando os fatores associados a cada uma delas, foram as que tiveram maior semelhança com as prevalências consideradas como sendo os verdadeiros valores populacionais (artigo 3). Conclusões. Os resultados das comparações entre os inquéritos sinalizam a tendência de superestimação de alguns indicadores de cobertura de mamografia e de Papanicolaou nos dados de pesquisa via telefone, apontando para a necessidade de novos estudos que também contribuam para o melhor entendimento dos vícios e possíveis correções com novos ajustes de pós-estratificação (artigo 1). Apesar dos ajustes de pós-estratificação não corrigirem totalmente as estimativas, as diferenças encontradas não devem ser consideradas um impedimento para a realização dos inquéritos via telefone fixo, uma vez que eles contribuem para o direcionamento de ações e novas políticas de saúde no Brasil (artigo 2). A utilização de técnicas de estimação em pequenas áreas permite o uso de determinada pesquisa, que a princípio não tenha sido desenhada para tal objetivo, identificando necessidades de determinadas regiões, contribuindo para a implantação de ações preventivas e intervenções em saúde pública em nível local (artigo 3) / Introduction. Nowadays population-based health surveys employ different strategies in order to obtain data, such as household and telephone interviews with the purpose of monitoring risk factors and evaluate the access and utilization of health services, being essential in planning public health policies. Objective. Study the implementation of some statistical tools used for comparison of estimates obtained by different surveys, creation of post-stratification adjustments and small-area estimation techniques, using data from different population-based health surveys conducted in areas of the state of São Paulo. Methodology. Using the svy commands of Stata (10.0 and 11.0), three studies were carried out. The first (paper 1) compared estimates according to the type of the survey (household survey ISACapital 2008 and telephone survey VIGITEL-SP 2008) using Poisson regression analysis adjusted by age and education. The second (paper 2) compared post-stratification adjustments utilizing different sets of variables and three different strategies (cell weighting technique, rake technique and a third \"combined\" between the rake and cell weighting). The third (paper 3) used five (direct and indirect) small-area estimation techniques for the calculation of prevalence of health characteristics for a smaller area of São Paulo (Butantã Health District). Results. There were no statistically significant differences between the estimates obtained by VIGITEL and ISACapital for the prevalence of mammography in the year prior to the interview. However, estimates for the global results of the Pap smear at least once in life and in the past year as well as, mammography in life, we observed differences, with higher prevalence rates among respondents by telephone (paper 1). Applying the rake post-stratification technique, the largest reductions were observed in bias, especially when taking into account sociodemographic variables associated with each health characteristic analyzed (paper 2). The estimates for small areas obtained by calibration and regression, considering the factors associated with each health characteristic, were the ones most similar to the prevalence considered to be the true population values (paper 3). Conclusions. The results of the comparisons between the two surveys indicate the trend of overestimation in some indicators of prevalence of mammography and Pap smear via telephone survey, indicating a concern for further studies that also contribute to a better understanding of the bias and possible corrections with new post-stratification adjustments (paper 1). Despite the post-stratification adjustments do not completely correct the estimates, it should not be considered an impediment, since the telephone surveys contribute to the direct actions and new health policies in Brazil. (paper 2). The use of smallarea estimation techniques allows extrapolating the utilization of a research that had not been designed for such a purpose, identifying the needs of a particular region, contributing to the implementation of preventive interventions in public health at the local level. (paper 3)

The aim of this diploma theses is to identify possible causes of rapidly rising household debt in the Czech republic at the beginning of the 21st Century and its impact on macroeconomic aggregate indicators. The theoretical part deals with the credit expansion in economic theory, money creation, effects of changes in money supply, monetary and fiscal policy. The analytical part of the thesis evaluates the growth of indebtedness of Czech households in terms of various indicators, debt structure, reasons of growing household debt and other macroeconomic context. The issue of households debt problems and the ability to repay their obligations is mentioned as well as the comparison with developed economies.

This thesis deals with the default of households as one of the indicators of financial stability in the Czech Republic. Specifically, it studies increasing indeptedness of households and risks which endanger financial system. The aim is to analyze the main macroeconomic and microeconomic factors that affect households default and to determine their dependence on the non-performing loans. The conclusion summarizes the results of the thesis and suggests recommendations for central and commercial banks.

The objective of this thesis is to advance our understanding of how consumers use date labels and the implications of date-label use for household dairy product waste. It does this by investigating the effect of psychological, social, and contextual factors on date-label use and willingness to consume dairy products in relation to the expiry date. These effects are tested using structural equation models and survey data gathered from 548 Scottish consumers. The results of this study make two contributions to the literature on date-labelling and food waste. The first contribution is primarily theoretical. By improving our understanding of how consumers use date labels and the implications of date-label use for household dairy product waste, it supports the contention that food waste is best understood, not as a behaviour, but as the outcome of multiple behaviours. It argues that in order to understand why food waste is created, it is important to identify the factors that affect the individual behaviours that lead to it, such as date-label use, and how these behaviours relate to one another. These results also have implications for communications and campaigning around food waste reduction. The second contribution has policy relevance. It provides evidence of the likely limited effect of increasing the number of dairy products labelled with a best-before date rather than a use-by date on food waste. This is an approach recently proposed to reduce household food waste. It finds that better knowledge of the best-before date is associated with a higher willingness to consume products after the best-before date has passed. However, perceived risks about consuming products beyond their best-before date, including not just safety but quality, freshness, and social acceptability, appear to interact with date-label knowledge and dampen its influence. It argues that to be effective, any changes in date-labelling should be accompanied by communication that goes beyond improving date-label knowledge, and addresses the multifaceted nature of related risk perceptions and conceptions of date-label trust.

Esta investigação tem como ponto de partida a preocupação contemporânea quanto ao desenvolvimento de produtos sustentáveis e, desta forma, considera-se como objeto do estudo o descarte de materiais pré-consumo no segmento de móveis modulados componíveis para cozinhas, popularmente denominados \"móveis planejados\", que tem como uma das principais características o desenvolvimento de projetos personalizados a partir de módulos padronizados. Com o objetivo de traçar um panorama qualitativo do tema e olhar a questão a partir de uma visão sistêmica do processo, a coleta de dados partiu de três principais enfoques: produção industrial, projeto e montagem dos móveis. Na fase de produção industrial, foram utilizadas entrevistas com profissionais e especialistas do setor, tais como empresários industriais, engenheiros de produção, designers do produto e feita observação não participante nas indústrias em que os móveis são produzidos. Na fase de projeto técnico, buscou-se junto aos projetistas compreender a relação entre o objeto da investigação e os métodos projetuais utilizados durante o processo de criação e na fase de montagem, final do processo, a coleta de dados foi realizada por meio de entrevistas e da observação não participante com os montadores durante a instalação dos móveis nas cozinhas. Como resultado, são apresentados os dados mais relevantes quanto ao descarte de materiais neste segmento do mobiliário residencial, identificando-se os tipos recorrentes de material descartado, sua eventual destinação e as principais circunstâncias no sistema produto geradoras destes insumos, apontando caminhos para novas investigações e abordagens, dentro e fora da área de design. / This research has as its starting point the contemporary concern about the development of sustainable products and, therefore, the object of the study is considered the disposal of preconsumption materials in the segment of modular furniture for kitchens, popularly called \"planned furniture\" , which has as one of the main characteristics the development of customized projects from standardized modules. With the objective of tracing a qualitative panorama of the theme and looking at the question from a systemic view of the process, the data collection came from three main focuses: industrial production, design and furniture assembly. In the industrial production phase, interviews with professionals and industry experts such as industrial entrepreneurs, production engineers, product designers and nonparticipant observation were used in the industries in which the furniture is produced. In the technical design phase, the designers sought to understand the relationship between the object of the investigation and the design methods used during the creation process, and in the assembly phase, at the end of the process, the data collection was performed through interviews And the non-participant observation with the assemblers during the installation of the furniture in the kitchens. As a result, we present the most relevant data regarding the disposal of materials in this segment of residential furniture, identifying the recurrent types of discarded material, their eventual destination and the main circumstances in the productsystem generating these inputs, pointing out the ways for further investigations and approaches, inside and outside the design area.

This document is submitted in partial fulfilment for the degree: Master of Arch[Prof] at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in the year 2015 / Domestic workers in South Africa are a vulnerable work force who are not financially or socially recognised for the significant role they play in sustaining homes, suburbs and society. The topic of domestic work serves as a lens through which to analyse the intersectional issues of race, gender and class in South Africa and their spatial manifestations. I have found that spatial principles employed, historically and currently, play a substantial role in creating or upholding the unbalanced power relationship governing domestic work. The spatial techniques of separation, isolation, concealment, surveillance, front to back and leisure to work relationships for example, have become so mundane and normalized in South African society that it is difficult to identify these factors as facilitators of race, gender and class discrimination. My spatial approach is to utilize these principles in a way that disrupts and draws attention to their original objective. The program aims to recognise the significance of this occupation, give domestic Workers collective power to negotiate their working conditions and facilitate social mobility. The building is a mix-use centre which incorporates business, accommodation, communal and public facilities, activities and gathering spaces a landscaped park. The business facilities incorporate existing services in a more formalized, professionalized manner, ensuring fair remuneration and recognition for quality services. The centre additionally provides services in more interactive, sustainable and economically efficient ways than they are traditionally provided for in individual private homes. These communal services include a children’s day care, public laundry and eatery. The intention is to create a prototype that may be reproduced in any suburb thereby creating a network of centres. The selection of the park in Norwood as a site serves to reactivate an underutilized public space and in so doing challenge the existing relationships of work and leisure, public and private and social hierarchies in the suburb. The position of this project in the relatively, sparsely populated suburbs would change the racial and financial demographic. It would be a new typology for high density, low cost/ government subsidised housing in a way that integrates infrastructure and public space. / EM2017

A anemia ferropriva no Brasil é o problema carencial de maior magnitude tendo como principal fator a insuficiência de alimentos fontes de ferro na dieta. O objetivo deste estudo foi analisar, por meio de um exercício teórico, a capacidade da alimentação atender à recomendação e necessidade de ferro levando em consideração a legislação para fortificação das farinhas de trigo e de milho com o mineral vigente no Brasil desde junho de 2004. Para esse exercício foram utilizados os dados secundários referidos em relação à aquisição alimentar domiciliar pela população brasileira na Pesquisa de Orçamentos Familiares 2002/2003, destacando as macrorregiões e, entre as classes de rendimento, exclusivamente os dados referentes às famílias com rendimento mensal inferior a dois salários mínimos. Os valores encontrados foram organizados para estimar a disponibilidade e biodisponibilidade do ferro na alimentação adquirida e realizar o cálculo da densidade de ferro e densidade de ferro biodisponível. A partir da aquisição alimentar domiciliar verificou-se um valor calórico diário insuficiente para atender à necessidade energética. Verificou-se que o baixo teor de ferro proveniente dos alimentos naturalmente fontes do mineral feijão e carnes foi acrescido em 45% com o ferro dos alimentos derivados das farinhas de trigo e de milho fortificadas. Entre as famílias com renda mensal inferior a dois salários mínimos o aumento foi de 40%. Mesmo com a fortificação, a quantidade de ferro veiculada pela alimentação nacional está longe de atingir a recomendação de 14mg Fe/dia. O valor encontrado atende a recomendação marcial para o homem, mas representa apenas 55% do recomendado para a mulher. A densidade do ferro biodisponível de 0,360mg/1000 Kcal também não atendeu à necessidade diária do homem (1,0 mg/dia) e muito menos da mulher (2,2 mg/dia). A elevada prevalência com que essa deficiência ocorre, justificada pelo baixo consumo do mineral, acarreta à Saúde Pública elevados custos diretos e indiretos. A fortificação das farinhas com ferro é uma medida destinada a grandes segmentos populacionais e visa principalmente à prevenção e controle da deficiência marcial. / The iron deficiency anemia in Brazil is a fundamental problem of greater magnitude, and its main factor is that in the Brazilian diet there is insufficient use of foods that provide sources of iron. The objective of this piece of work is, by means of a theoretical work, to analyze if the diet is able to meet the recommendation / need of iron taking into account the legislation of fortification of wheat flour and corn with the current mineral in Brazil since June, 2004. For this matter, secondary data referring the domestic food acquisition by the Brazilian population in the \"Pesquisa de Orçamentos Familiares\" household budget survey 2002 / 2003 were used, focusing on the biggest regions and the income classes, especially the ones with monthly income inferior to two minimal salaries. The values found were organized to estimate the availability and the bioavailability of iron in the diet and to calculate the density of iron and of bioavailable iron. Based on the domestic food acquisition, a caloric value, which was insufficient to meet the needs of energy consumption, was observed. It was also noticed that the low amount of iron coming from foods naturally found in beans and meat was increased by 45% with the iron derived from fortified wheat flour and corn. Among families whose income was inferior to two minimal salaries, the increase was 40%. Even with the fortification, the quantity of iron available in the usual diet of the country is far behind the recommended 14mg per day. The amount meets the recommended for male, but it only adds up to 55% of what is recommended for the females. The density of boiavailable iron, which was 0.360 mg / 1000kcal, was also unable to meet the daily need of a male (1.0mg per day) and most notably of a female (2.2mg per day). The high prevalence that this deficiency happens, justify by the low consumption of this mineral, brings very high direct and indirect expenses to the Brazilian Department of Public Health Public. The fortification of flour with iron is a measure destined to great population segments and is aimed specifically at the prevention and control of martial deficiency.

En grön omställning i svenska hushåll har en avgörande roll för att kunna minska dagens miljöproblem. Miljöproblem har idag individualiserats och ansvaret för att leva ett miljövänligt liv ligger således på individnivå. När miljöproblem individualiseras med ett ökat ansvar hos individen som resultat krävs förutsättningar att kunna leva ett miljövänligare liv, förutsättningar vilka kan variera som resultat av var individen väljer att bo. Det blir komplicerat om en grön omställning inte är anpassad för hela nationen utan enbart en del av den. Studien är en kvalitativ intervjustudie med inriktning kring hur invånare på landsbygden ser på en grön omställning med utgångspunkt i de vanliga omställningsområdena transport, avfall, konsumtion och energi. Materialet från intervjuerna har analyserats med en kvalitativ innehållsanalys. Syftet med studien har varit att undersöka hur invånare på landsbygden ser på en grön omställning samt vilka hinder och möjligheter som presenteras. Studiens resultat visar att det inom en del omställningsområden finns goda möjligheter för hushåll på landsbygden att verkställa en grön omställning medan andra omställningar framställs som mer komplicerade. Möjligheten till att verkställa en grön omställning i praktiken framställs olika baserat på omställningsområde och var individen väljer att bo. Studien visar således att förutsättningarna till att verkställa en grön omställning uppfattas olika grundat på om individen bor på landsbygd eller i stad. / A green transition in Swedish households has a crucial role in reducing the current environmental problems. Environmental problems have been individualized and the responsibility for living a more environmental friendly life is thus at the individual level. When environmental problems are individualized with an increased responsibility of the individual as a result, the conditions are required to be able to live a more environmentally friendly life, conditions that vary as a result if where the individual chooses to live. It becomes complicated if a green transition is not adapted för the whole nation but only part of it. The study is a qualitative interview study focusing on how citizens in rural areas opinion on a green transition based on the usual areas of transition, transport, waste, consumption and energy. The material from the interviews has been analyzed with a qualitative content analysis. The purpose of the study has been to examine how the citizens look at a green transition and what obstacles and opportunities are presented. The results of the study shows that there are good opportunities for households in rural areas to implement green transition in certain sectors while other changes are presented as more complicated. The possibility of implementing a green transition in practice is presented differently based on were the individual chooses to live. The study thus shows that the green transition are perceived differently based on whether the individuals lives in rural or urban areas.

Diarrheal diseases are a global public health burden, killing 1.8 million people annually. Diarrhea disproportionately affects children and those in poverty. Most diarrheal cases can be prevented through safe drinking water, basic hygiene and/or sanitation measures, with drinking water interventions having the most impact on reducing diarrheal disease. There is no generally agreed-upon field method for determining biosand water filter effectiveness that is usable in low-resource communities. A pilot study was conducted of potential field use indicators, including the Colilert coliform presence/absence (P/A) test, hydrogen sulfide, alkalinity, hardness, pH, and fluorescently labeled latex microspheres. The study included both laboratory and field testing. The Colilert P/A test had the highest correlation to the United States Environmental Protection Agency standard method (IDEXX Quanti-trays), but more data are needed before making a recommendation. This study adds to understanding about evaluation of biosand water filters and provides preliminary data to address the need for a field use indicator for biosand water filters.