Résumé français :Problématique :les hommes qui ont des rapports sexuels avec des hommes (HSH) constituent les populations les plus à risque d’infection au VIH dans différents pays d’Afrique subsaharienne. A ce jour, très peu d’interventions sont menées pour réduire le risque d’infection en influant sur les facteurs de risque, en Afrique Centrale et particulièrement en République Centrafricaine. Les objectifs de cette thèse visent à démontrer que les HSH sont identifiables et sont à risque des IST/VIH, que leur simple suivi médical ne permet pas un changement de comportements sexuels et réduire la fréquence des IST/VIH, mais que la combinaison d’interventions comportementale, biomédicale et structurelle permet, même en période de crise humanitaire, le changement de comportement sexuel et la réduction de la fréquence des IST/VIH. Méthodologie :Les HSH ont été enrôlés progressivement depuis 2010 pour atteindre un nombre de 220 en 2014. L’étude préliminaire sur les caractéristiques sociodémographiques et pratiques sexuelles à risque a concerné les 103 premiers HSH enrôlés en 2010. En 2012, la cohorte atteint le nombre de 170 HSH parmi lesquels 99 qui avaient un dossier médical complet ont fait l’objet de la deuxième étude du suivi sur deux ans.En 2013, alors que la cohorte des HSH avait atteint 200, 20 HSH ont été interviewés dans le cadre de l’étude qualitative. En 2014, la cohorte des HSH a atteint le nombre de 220. L’étude d’intervention a concerné 40 HSH sélectionnés sur les 220 et s’est poursuivie jusqu’en 2016.Résultats :L’analyse des caractéristiques socio démographiques des 103 HSH relève la présence de HSH jeunes. L’âge varie entre 15 et 40 ans, avec une médiane à 23 ans. Les pratiques sexuelles à risque sont fréquentes, notamment les premiers rapports sexuels avant 16 ans et sans préservatifs (70%) ;7% n’ont jamais utilisé les préservatifs, 56 % sont bisexuels, 98% pratique la pénétration anale. 31 HSH soit 24 %, étaient séropositifs pour le VIH ;22 soit 17% étaient infectés par le virus de l'hépatite B (VHB), dont 6 cas étaient coinfectés par le VIH et le VHB (M.B. Simaleko, et al.- Médecine d'Afrique Noire 6010 - Octobre 2013 - 409-414).En 2012, après deux ans de suivi médical et de counseling, il n’y a pas eu de changement de comportement et de pratiques sexuelles à risque, notamment en ce qui concerne la fréquence des rapports non protégés et la moyenne du nombre de partenaires occasionnels. La fréquence des principales IST a augmenté. Les prévalences du VIH, de la syphilis et de l’hépatite ont augmenté de manière significative et respectivement de 29% à 41%, de 12% à 21% de 14% à 23%. (Mbeko Simaleko M. et al. Pan Afr Med J. 2018; 29: 132).L’entretien avec les HSH a révélé plusieurs obstacles à l’utilisation des préservatifs, notamment, les ruptures, leur disponibilité, les fausses croyances, les pressions de l’entourage. (Mbeko Simaleko M. et al. Médecine et Santé Tropicale 2018 ;28 :424-429). De 2014 à 2016, l’étude d’interventions sur 40 HSH choisis de manière aléatoire et basée sur la combinaison des interventions comportementale, biomédicale et structurelle a permis d’améliorer le comportement et pratiques sexuelles des HSH par la réduction significative du nombre de partenaires sexuels occasionnels et l’augmentation significative de la fréquence des rapports sexuels protégés. À cet effet, il a été noté un seul cas de nouvelle infection par le VIH parmi les séronégatifs des 40 HSH contre 9 cas dans le groupe témoin. Aucune nouvelle infection au virus de l’hépatite B dans le groupe intervention contre 18, dans le groupe témoin. Il y a une augmentation significative de séropositifs dans le groupe témoin comparativement au groupe intervention en ce qui concerne la sérologie de la syphilis. (Mbeko Simaleko M. et al. Health Sci. Dis. 2020; 21: 94-99). Conclusion :les HSH sont identifiables et à risque. Le simple suivi médical associé au counseling ne permet pas d’améliorer le comportement sexuel et réduire la fréquence des IST. Cependant la combinaison des interventions a permis d’améliorer le comportement et la prise de risques des HSH mais également de réduire la fréquence des IST, même en période de crise humanitaire. Au vu du faible nombre de HSH inclus dans l’étude, il serait nécessaire d’étendre celle-ci, afin de conforter les résultats obtenus.Abstract Issue: Men who have sex with men (MSM) are the most at risk populations of HIV infection in different countries of sub-Saharan Africa. To date, very few interventions have been carried out to reduce the risk of infection by influencing on risk factors in Central Africa and particularly in the Central African Republic. The objectives of this research are to demonstrate that MSM are identifiable and at risk of STI/HIV, that the medical follow-up does not cause a change in sexual behavior and a reduction in the frequency of STI/HIV but that the combination of behavioral, biomedical and structural interventions allows, even in times of humanitarian crisis, behavioral change and reduction in the frequency of STI/HIV. Methodology: MSM have been progressively enrolled since 2010 to reach a number of 220 in 2014. The preliminary study on sociodemographic characteristics and sexual risk practices involved the first 103 MSM recruited until 2011. In 2012, 99 MSM who had a complete medical record were the subject of the second study on a two-year follow-up. In 2013, when the MSM cohort reached 200, 20 MSM were interviewed in the context of the qualitative study. In 2014, the MSM cohort reached 220. The intervention study involved 40 selected MSM out of the 220 and was continued during 2016.Results: MSM are predominantly young Their age varied between 15 and 40 years, with a median of23 years. Risky sexual practices were frequent, including first sexual intercourse before the age of 16 and without condoms (70%); 7% never used condoms, 56% are bisexual, 98% practice anal penetration. 31 MSM, or 24%, were HIV-positive; 22, or 17%, were infected with hepatitis B virus (HBV), of which 6 cases were co-infected with HIV and HBV (M.B. Simaleko, Set al. - Médecine d'Afrique Noire 6010 - Octobre 2013 - 409-414). In 2012, after two years of medical follow-up and counselling, there was no change in risk behavior and sexual practices, including the frequency of unprotected sex and the average number of occasional partners.The incidence of major STIs increased. The prevalence of HIV, syphilis and hepatitis increased significantly and respectively from 29% to 41%, from 12% to 21%, from 14% to 23%, respectively (Mbeko Simaleko M. et al. Pan Afr Med J. 2018; 29: 132). Interviews with MSM revealed several barriers to condom use, including condom breaks, condom availability, false beliefs, and peer pressure (Mbeko Simaleko M. et al. Médecine et Santé Tropicale 2018; 28: 424-429). From 2014 to 2016, the intervention study of 40 randomly selected MSM based on a combination of behavioral, biomedical, and structural interventions improved the sexual behavior and practices of MSM by significantly reducing the number of occasional sexual partners and significantly increasing the frequency of safer sex. Only 1 case of new HIV infection was noted among the 40 HSH HIV-negative compared to 9 cases in the control group. There were no new hepatitis B virus infections in the intervention group versus 18 in the control group. There was a significant increase in seropositivity in the control group compared to the intervention group with respect to syphilis serology (Mbeko Simaleko M. et al. Health Sci. Dis: Vol 21 (7) July 2020 pp 94-99). Conclusion: MSM were identifiable and most of them were at HIV risk. Simple medical follow-up combined with counselling does not allow to improve sexual behavior or to reduce the frequency of STIs. However, the combination of interventions has made it possible to improve the behavior and risk-taking of MSM and also to reduce the frequency of STIs, even in times of humanitarian crisis. In view of the low number of MSM included in the sample study and in order to consolidate the results obtained, it would be necessary to carry out a more in-depth study with a larger sample of MSM. / Doctorat en Santé Publique / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Les hommes ayant des relations sexuelles avec des hommes (HSH) sont particulièrement touchés par le VIH depuis le début de l’épidémie. En France, le taux annuel d’incidence du VIH est le plus élevé, estimé en 2008 à 1% dans cette population. Dans ce contexte, il est primordial de disposer de données comportementales efficientes sur les pratiques sexuelles et préventives ainsi que sur les modes de vie afin de mettre en œuvre des programmes de prévention au plus proche des habitudes de vie des HSH et d’évaluer leurs impacts sur les comportements. Mais appréhender la population HSH dans sa globalité est complexe de par sa diversité est difficile. Depuis leur création en 1985, les Enquêtes Presse Gay (EPG) se sont attachées à comprendre l’impact des progrès médicaux, des modes de socialisation et les modifications des représentations de l’homosexualité sur les pratiques sexuelles préventives.La dernière édition de l’Enquête Presse Gays et Lesbiennes réalisée, en 2011, a recruté 10 448 HSH sur la base du volontariat. Grâce à la diversification des modes de recrutement incluant les sites internet communautaires, de nouveaux profils socio-démographiques et sexuels sont décrits à côté de ceux habituellement recrutés. L’actualisation des indicateurs de prises de risque sexuel qui prennent en compte les avancées thérapeutiques et les pratiques profanes de prévention permet de constater que le niveau d’exposition au VIH des HSH reste toujours élevé. Il varie selon le statut sérologique VIH et le niveau d’étude de ces HSH. L’analyse longitudinale des sept dernières EPG, a mis en évidence, l’impact des dynamiques sociales structurant les comportements sexuels et préventifs des HSH ayant débuté leur sexualité entre 1960 et 2011.Dans l’optique, d’enrayer la dynamique de l’épidémie de VIH, il est essentiel de poursuivre les dispositifs d’observation des comportements sexuels et préventifs des HSH via des enquêtes ad hoc. Ces enquêtes doivent être en adéquation avec les évolutions rapides et soutenues qui caractérisent la lutte contre le VIH. Elles devront faire preuve d’innovation. / Men who have sex with men (MSM) have been greatly affected by HIV infection. Indeed in France, the highest HIV incidence rate was estimated in 2008 at 1% in this population. In this context, it is essential, more than ever, to have in-depth knowledge of the sexual behavior and lifestyles of the MSM population in order to implement efficient prevention programs. Obtaining such data is not easy because of the difficulty in understanding and describing the MSM population both as a whole and in all its diversity.Since its creation in 1985, the Gay Press Surveys (EPG) have focused on the comprehensive approach of the impact of HIV medical advances, patterns of socialization and changes in the homosexuality’s representations on preventive sexual practices. In the last Gays and Lesbians Press Survey conducted in 2011, 10,448 MSM were recruited on a voluntary basis. With the diversification of recruitment methods including community websites, new socio-demographic and sexual profiles were described in addition to those usually recruited. The updating of the at-risk sexual indicators took into account the HIV therapeutic advances and the profane practices of prevention. A high level of HIV exposure among MSM was still observed, depending on the respondents’ HIV serological status and level of education. A generational approach of the last seven EPGs highlighted a strong period effect suggesting that sexual behaviors in MSM are influenced more by contextual than generational factors.To progress in ending the HIV epidemic, it is essential to continue to monitor sexual and preventive behaviors among MSM. Behavioral surveillance has to maintain consistency in methods and measures over time but needs to successfully adapt to follow new and emerging practices.

Submitted by Jailda Nascimento (jmnascimento@pucsp.br) on 2016-10-04T14:32:43Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Roberto Garcia.pdf: 4809301 bytes, checksum: d4e473a0adf83548a31acfe46f828f61 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-10-04T14:32:43Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Roberto Garcia.pdf: 4809301 bytes, checksum: d4e473a0adf83548a31acfe46f828f61 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-07-08 / This study aimed to identify and understand factors involved in conducts of circumstantial omission and refusal of condom use with casual and/or stable partners by MSM living with HIV+; and as a specific objective, to understand the behavior of intentional and deliberate refusal of condom use among MSM with HIV+. In this research of mixed methods, comparing reports between quantitative and qualitative components, 178 participants were selected for the quantitative stage (total sample = T), who filled out a sociodemographic form with condom usage habits, as well as two scales – Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11) and Sexual Compulsivity Scale (SCS). From this universe, 81 participants were selected for the qualitative stage (Subsample = S-2), also answering to three fictional-projective stories and rating a 2014 National Campaign Poster on HIV. For the qualitative analysis we used the Discourse of the Collective Subject; and for the quantitative analysis we opted for the combination of Natural Language Processing and triangulation with qualitative results. Among the main findings we highlight that, in the quantitative stage, from the 73 subjects (41%) (T) that had declared the use of condom in all their sexual relations, only 14 (17.3%) (S-2) effectively admitted its use in the qualitative stage, indicating divergence between the two groups. Similarly, this contradiction was repeated as to the use of psychoactive substances – characterized in this study as the main triggering factor of condom use omission –, since only 28% (T) initially admitted having used them, in contrast to the total of 56% (S- 2) in the qualitative stage. Another difference that would mean a "clear proof" of failure and refusal of condom use occurred in their assertion of having contracted STIs after the HIV diagnosis, identified in 35.5% (T) and 52% (S-2), respectively. Another finding was the intentional and deliberate refusal of condom use associated with signs of compulsive sexual behavior and risk in pleasure, including the barebackers and those practiced in cruising areas. Given the significant divergences between the initial reports of the participants and what was later identified in the two stages of this research, we conclude that clinical guidelines and public policies should be cautious in research interpretation, with proper checkings associated with further investigations. The clinical features observed in this study, including the evidence of impulsive and compulsive sexual behaviors, may constitute determining benchmarks to be taking into account in future actions associated to the use of condoms by MSM with HIV+ / Cette étude a eu pour but principal d‟identifier et de comprendre les facteurs impliqués dans le comportement de l'omission circonstancielle et le refus de l'utilisation du préservatif avec des partenaires occasionnels et / ou stables des HSH VIH+; et comme objectif spécifique, comprendre le comportement de refus intentionnel et délibéré de l'utilisation du préservatif chez les HSH VIH+. Dans cette recherche utilisant des méthodes mixtes, qui a comparé les récits recueillis chez les composantes quantitatives et qualitatives, 178 participants ont été sélectionnés pour l‟étape quantitative (échantillon total = T), ceux-là ont rempli un formulaire socio-démographique portant également sur leurs habitudes d'utilisation du préservatif, et deux échelles - la Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11) et l'Échelle de la Compulsion Sexuelle (ECS). Dans cet univers, 81 participants ont été alors choisis (sous-échantillon = S-2) pour l'étape qualitative, lesquels ont également répondu à trois histoires fictives-projectives et évalué une affiche de la Campagne nationale contre le VIH de 2014. Comme méthode d'analyse qualitative, nous avons utilisé le Discours du sujet collectif; et pour l'analyse quantitative, nous avons choisi la combinaison du Traitement de la langue naturelle et la triangulation avec des résultats qualitatifs. Parmi les principaux résultats, nous soulignons que, au cours de l‟étape quantitative, sur les 73 sujets (41%) (T) qui avaient déclaré initialement avoir utilisé des préservatifs lors de toutes les relations sexuelles, au cours de l‟étape qualitative seulement 14 (17,3%) (S-2) ont admis l‟utiliser effectivement, ce qui montre des divergences entre les deux groupes. Cette contradiction s‟est répétée en ce qui concerne l'utilisation de substances psychoactives - caractérisée dans cette étude comme le principal facteur déclencheur de l'omission de l‟utilisation du préservatif -, car seulement 28% (T) ont initialement admis les utiliser, en contraste avec le total de 56% (S- 2) lors de l‟étape qualitative. Une autre divergence, qui représenterait une «preuve définitive» de l'omission et du refus de l'utilisation du préservatif, a eu lieu lorsqu‟ils ont déclaré avoir contracté les MST après le diagnostic du VIH, identifiée dans 35,5% (T) et dans 52% (S-2) respectivement. Une autre constatation est le refus intentionnel et délibéré de l'utilisation du préservatif associé à des indices de comportement sexuel compulsif et le plaisir du risque, parmi lesquels ceux des barebackers et ceux pratiqués dans les cruising areas. Compte tenu des divergences importantes existant entre les récits initiaux des participants et ce qui a été identifié plus tard au cours des deux étapes de cette recherche, nous avons conclu que les orientations cliniques et celles des politiques publiques doivent être plus prudentes en ce qui concerne l'interprétation des enquêtes, en effectuant les vérifications nécessaires associées à une investigation plus approfondie. Les caractéristiques cliniques observées dans cette étude, parmi lesquelles les indices de comportement sexuel impulsif et compulsif, peuvent constituer des référentiels déterminants à prendre en considération lors des actions futures concernant l'utilisation des préservatifs chez les HSH VIH+ / Este estudo teve como objetivo principal identificar e compreender fatores envolvidos nos comportamentos de omissão circunstancial e recusa do uso do preservativo com parcerias eventuais e/ou estáveis de HSH HIV+; e, como objetivo específico, compreender o comportamento de recusa intencional e deliberada do uso do preservativo entre HSH HIV+. Nesta pesquisa de métodos mistos, que comparou os relatos entre os componentes quantitativos e qualitativos, foram selecionados 178 participantes para a etapa quantitativa (amostra total = T), que preencheram um formulário sociodemográfico e de hábitos do uso do preservativo, e duas escalas – a Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11) e a Escala de Compulsividade Sexual (ECS). Desse universo, foram então selecionados 81 participantes (Subamostra = S-2) para a etapa qualitativa, que também responderam a três histórias fictício-projetivas e avaliaram um cartaz de Campanha Nacional do HIV de 2014. Como método de análise qualitativa, utilizamos o Discurso do Sujeito Coletivo; e para a análise quantitativa optamos pela combinação de Processamento de Língua Natural e triangulação com resultados qualitativos. Dentre os principais resultados encontrados destacamos que, na etapa quantitativa, dos 73 sujeitos (41%) (T) que declararam inicialmente ter usado preservativos durante todas as relações sexuais, na etapa qualitativa apenas 14 (17,3%) (S-2) admitiram efetivamente usá-lo, demonstrando divergências entre os dois grupos. Essa contradição se repetiu no uso de substâncias psicoativas – caracterizado neste estudo como o principal fator desencadeador da omissão do uso do preservativo –, pois somente 28% (T) inicialmente admitiram usá-las, em contraste com o total de 56% (S-2) na etapa qualitativa. Outra divergência, que representaria a “prova cabal” de omissão e recusa do uso do preservativo, ocorreu na declaração de terem contraído DSTs após o diagnóstico do HIV, identificada em 35,5% (T) e em 52% (S-2), respectivamente. Outra constatação foi a recusa intencional e deliberada do uso do preservativo associada a indícios de comportamento sexual compulsivo e prazer no risco, entre eles o dos barebackers, e aqueles praticados nas cruising areas. Considerando as significativas divergências entre os relatos iniciais dos participantes e o que foi identificado posteriormente nas duas etapas desta pesquisa, conclui-se que orientações clínicas e de políticas públicas devem ser cautelosas na interpretação de pesquisas, com as devidas checagens associadas a uma investigação mais aprofundada. As características clínicas observadas neste estudo, entre elas os indícios de comportamentos sexuais impulsivos e compulsivos, podem se constituir em referenciais determinantes a serem considerados em futuras ações quanto ao uso do preservativo em HSH HIV+

Dans les années qui ont suivi l'apparition de l'infection par le VIH, la priorité était donnée à la recherche thérapeutique. Depuis l'introduction des trithérapies antirétrovirales en 1996, la mortalité et la morbidité liées du VIH ont fortement chuté. Cependant, l'épidémie reste très active, notamment chez les hommes ayant des relations sexuelles avec d'autres hommes (HSH), signifiant la nécessité d'un changement de paradigmes en termes de dépistage et de prévention. Cette thèse suit l'évolution d'une partie de la recherche en épidémiologie du VIH dans les pays du Nord, en s'intéressant d'abord à l'efficacité des traitements pour ensuite s'orienter vers les limites et les nouvelles stratégies de dépistage du VIH et enfin aborder le thème de la prévention. Elle regroupe cinq études épidémiologiques conduites en France.La première étude, conduite chez 175 patients infectés par le VIH-1 et naïfs de traitement antirétroviral, a montré que le lopinavir/ritonavir était efficace quelques soient les polymorphismes portés par la protéase virale. La seconde étude, basée sur un modèle économique prenant en compte l'évolution des pratiques médicales et l'impact des nouveaux traitements a montré que le coût des soins relatifs au VIH est 535000€ par patient (coût actualisé : 320700€) pour une espérance de vie de 26,5 ans dans les conditions actuelles de prise en charge. Elle met en évidence que le coût annuel d'un patient est d'autant plus élevé qu'il débute la prise en charge à un stade avancé de la maladie (21600€/an s'il accède aux soins en stade sida ou avec un taux de CD4<200/mm3 vs. 19400€ avec un taux de CD4>500/mm3, coûts non actualisés). La troisième étude portant sur 1008 patients VIH nouvellement diagnostiqués, a montré que 93% des patients avaient consulté un médecin généraliste dans les trois années qui précèdent le diagnostic de VIH et que 82% des patients inclus qui consultaient pour des symptômes associés au VIH durant cette période avaient une opportunité manquée de proposition de dépistage du VIH. De même, 55% des HSH qui mentionnaient à une structure de soins leur appartenance à ce groupe à risque, avaient une opportunité manquée de dépistage. La quatrième étude a évalué un dépistage communautaire du VIH auprès des HSH (532 HSH ont été testés dans le cadre de l'étude). Ce dépistage a atteint des personnes à risque d'acquisition du VIH dont un tiers se dépistait peu dans les autres structures de dépistage. Parmi les 15 hommes testés positif (2,8%), 12 (80%) ont reçu la confirmation de leur séropositivité pour le VIH et ont été liés aux soins (médiane des CD4 =550/mm3). La cinquième étude, basée sur un design cas-témoins et menée chez les HSH dans le Nord (53 cas de syphilis précoce et 90 témoins) a mis en évidence la fellation réceptive sans préservatif et l'utilisation de jouets sexuels anaux comme principaux facteurs de risque de la syphilis. Nos résultats montrent les limites des stratégies actuelles de dépistage et sont en faveur d'un dépistage systématique du VIH en routine dans les structures de soins primaires, d'une extension de l'offre de dépistage pour les populations à risque spécifique et d'une prévention renforcée axée sur les mesures de réduction des risques du VIH mais aussi des IST. A l'ère des traitements antirétroviraux efficaces, bien tolérés, mais coûteux, le dépistage et la prévention sont des enjeux de poids dans la maitrise de l'épidémie.

Introdução No contexto da valorização crescente do teste anti-HIV como estratégia de prevenção programática, a promoção do teste anti-HIV como estratégia de prevenção entre homens que fazem sexo com homens (HSH) é fundamental. Objetivo - Analisar os fatores associados tanto ao uso rotineiro como episódico do teste anti-HIV. Métodos - Os participantes foram 946 HSH entrevistados pelo Projeto SampaCentro em locais de sociabilidade HSH da região central de São Paulo entre novembro de 2011 e janeiro de 2012, nunca testados ou que procuraram o teste espontaneamente. A metodologia de amostragem foi a time-space-sampling e foram utilizados protocolos do Stata 12.0 para análise de amostras complexas. Os homens que se testaram por rotina ou episodicamente foram comparados aos nunca testados. As variáveis analisadas nos dois modelos de regressão de Poisson foram divididas em três níveis: características sociodemográficas (primeiro nível); socialização na comunidade gay e exposição da orientação sexual, discriminação e opiniões e atitudes em relação ao HIV/Aids e ao teste (segundo nível); percepção de risco, estratégias de prevenção e práticas e parcerias sexuais (terceiro nível). Resultados Os homens que se testaram rotineiramente eram mais velhos e moradores no Centro de SP. Além disso, tinham exposto a orientação sexual para profissional de saúde, sido discriminados em serviços de saúde mas não por amigos e/ou vizinhos (em razão da sexualidade) e não mencionaram medo do resultado do teste como motivo para HSH não se testarem. Também tinham maior probabilidade de conhecer pessoa soropositiva e de ter parcerias estáveis sem sexo anal desprotegido nas casuais (comparado a ter apenas parcerias casuais protegidas). Os homens que se testaram episodicamente eram mais velhos, residentes do Centro de SP, não moravam com parentes, expuseram sua orientação sexual para profissional de saúde, não reportaram medo do resultado do teste como barreira, conheciam pessoa soropositiva e mencionaram parceria estável sem sexo desprotegido com parceiro casual ou então sexo desprotegido em parcerias casuais (comparado a ter apenas parcerias casuais protegidas). Conclusões Os mais jovens, os que moram fora do centro de São Paulo, e os que expões menos sua orientação sexual são os segmentos que menos se testam rotineira ou episodicamente. Assim, dependem de ações para que seu direito seja protegido e assegurado. A estigmatização e a discriminação da homossexualidade deve ser combatida para que não impeça o acesso ao teste e a outros serviços de saúde. Disseminar informações e socializar os mais jovens para o diálogo sobre as estratégias de prevenção biomédicas e estratégias comunitárias de prevenção é necessário. Para ampliar o acesso e qualidade da testagem como recurso fundamental de programas de prevenção permanece o desafio de sustentar o debate sobre sexualidade e prevenção a cada geração, assim como nos programas de formação de educadores e de profissionais de saúde de todas as áreas. / Introduction The relevance of HIV testing is growing in programmatic policies. Promoting HIV testing among men who have sex with men (MSM) is of utter importance. Objective Analyze factors associated with routine and episodic use of HIV testing. Methods Our participants were selected from the database of Projeto SampaCentro, a time-location sampling serobehavioral surveillance survey of MSM in São Paulo, Brazil, that took place between November 2011 and January 2012. Our participants were 946 MSM not HIV positive who were never tested or whose last testing was client-initiated. All analysis were performed using complex samples protocols in Stata 12.0. Men were divided in routine testers, episodic testers and men who had never tested. Routine testers and episodic testers were compared to those who had never tested using two Poisson regression models. Variables were divided in three levels of analysis: sociodemographic (first level); socialization in gay community and disclosure of sexual orientation, discrimination, attitudes and opinions on HIV/AIDS and testing (second level); risk perception, prevention strategies and sexual practices and partnerships (third level). Results Routine testers were older and lived in Central São Paulo, had more frequently disclosed their sexual orientation to a health professional and been discriminated against in health service settings, were less likely to having suffered discrimination from friends and/or neighbors and to point fear as a barrier to testing, were more likely to know someone infected with HIV and to mention steady partners without unprotected anal intercourse (UAI) with casual partners (compared to having only casual partners with no UAI). Episodic testers were also older and more likely to live in Central São Paulo, less likely to live with relatives, more likely to have disclosed their sexual orientation to a health professional, less likely to point fear as a barrier to testing, more likely to know someone infected with HIV. This group more frequently mentioned steady partners without UAI with casual partners and UAI with casual partners, regardless of mentioning steady partners (compared to having only casual partners with no events of UAI). Conclusion Young MSM, those who live outside Central São Paulo and those less ready to disclose their sexual orientation are the MSM segments that are less likely to test, routinely or episodically. Therefore, programmatic actions are needed to ensure their rights are protected. Stigmatization and discrimination of homosexuality must be mitigated so that it wont be a barrier to information about prevention and testing services. Additionally, information on biomedical and communitarian prevention technologies must be shared and presented to those not yet familiar with these strategies. In order to improve access and quality of testing, the challenge of sustaining the debate about sex, sexuality and prevention remains, as new generations of MSM will need to be introduced to this debate. The same is true for the course curriculum of health professionals and educators.

Dans les années qui ont suivi l’apparition de l’infection par le VIH, la priorité était donnée à la recherche thérapeutique. Depuis l’introduction des trithérapies antirétrovirales en 1996, la mortalité et la morbidité liées du VIH ont fortement chuté. Cependant, l’épidémie reste très active, notamment chez les hommes ayant des relations sexuelles avec d’autres hommes (HSH), signifiant la nécessité d’un changement de paradigmes en termes de dépistage et de prévention. Cette thèse suit l’évolution d’une partie de la recherche en épidémiologie du VIH dans les pays du Nord, en s’intéressant d’abord à l’efficacité des traitements pour ensuite s’orienter vers les limites et les nouvelles stratégies de dépistage du VIH et enfin aborder le thème de la prévention. Elle regroupe cinq études épidémiologiques conduites en France.La première étude, conduite chez 175 patients infectés par le VIH-1 et naïfs de traitement antirétroviral, a montré que le lopinavir/ritonavir était efficace quelques soient les polymorphismes portés par la protéase virale. La seconde étude, basée sur un modèle économique prenant en compte l’évolution des pratiques médicales et l’impact des nouveaux traitements a montré que le coût des soins relatifs au VIH est 535000€ par patient (coût actualisé : 320700€) pour une espérance de vie de 26,5 ans dans les conditions actuelles de prise en charge. Elle met en évidence que le coût annuel d’un patient est d’autant plus élevé qu’il débute la prise en charge à un stade avancé de la maladie (21600€/an s’il accède aux soins en stade sida ou avec un taux de CD4<200/mm3 vs. 19400€ avec un taux de CD4>500/mm3, coûts non actualisés). La troisième étude portant sur 1008 patients VIH nouvellement diagnostiqués, a montré que 93% des patients avaient consulté un médecin généraliste dans les trois années qui précèdent le diagnostic de VIH et que 82% des patients inclus qui consultaient pour des symptômes associés au VIH durant cette période avaient une opportunité manquée de proposition de dépistage du VIH. De même, 55% des HSH qui mentionnaient à une structure de soins leur appartenance à ce groupe à risque, avaient une opportunité manquée de dépistage. La quatrième étude a évalué un dépistage communautaire du VIH auprès des HSH (532 HSH ont été testés dans le cadre de l’étude). Ce dépistage a atteint des personnes à risque d’acquisition du VIH dont un tiers se dépistait peu dans les autres structures de dépistage. Parmi les 15 hommes testés positif (2,8%), 12 (80%) ont reçu la confirmation de leur séropositivité pour le VIH et ont été liés aux soins (médiane des CD4 =550/mm3). La cinquième étude, basée sur un design cas-témoins et menée chez les HSH dans le Nord (53 cas de syphilis précoce et 90 témoins) a mis en évidence la fellation réceptive sans préservatif et l’utilisation de jouets sexuels anaux comme principaux facteurs de risque de la syphilis. Nos résultats montrent les limites des stratégies actuelles de dépistage et sont en faveur d’un dépistage systématique du VIH en routine dans les structures de soins primaires, d’une extension de l’offre de dépistage pour les populations à risque spécifique et d’une prévention renforcée axée sur les mesures de réduction des risques du VIH mais aussi des IST. A l’ère des traitements antirétroviraux efficaces, bien tolérés, mais coûteux, le dépistage et la prévention sont des enjeux de poids dans la maitrise de l’épidémie. / In years following the onset of HIV infection, priority was given to therapeutic research. Since the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy in 1996, mortality and morbidity related to HIV have decreased dramatically. However, the epidemic remains active, especially among men who have sex with men (MSM), highlighting the need for changes in testing and prevention policies. This thesis presents the evolution of a part of research in epidemiology of HIV in Northern countries, focusing first on HIV treatments effectiveness then moving toward to limitations of current HIV testing strategies, new strategies of HIV testing, and finally addressing prevention. This Ph.D thesis contains five epidemiological studies conducted in France.The first study, conducted in 175 HIV-1 infected antiretroviral-naive patients, showed that lopinavir/ritonavir was efficient regardless to polymorphisms carried by the viral protease.The second study, based on an economic model accounting changes in medical practices and the impact of new drugs, showed that lifetime cost associated with HIV care is €535,000/patient (€320,700 discounted) for a life expectancy of 26.5 years under current conditions. Moreover, it highlighted that annual cost of care increases with late access to care (€21,600/year if AIDS or CD4 count <200 cells/mm3 at HIV care initiation, vs. €19,400 if CD4 count >500 cells/mm3, undiscounted costs).The third study conducted in 1,008 HIV-infected patients newly diagnosed, showed that 93% of patients had seen a general practitioner within 3-year period prior to HIV diagnosis. Of patients enrolled, 82 who sought care for HIV-related symptoms within this period had a missed opportunity for HIV testing proposition. Similarly, 55% of MSM who notified to a healthcare setting that they belonged to this risk group had a missed opportunity for HIV testing proposition. The fourth study assessed a community-based HIV testing strategy targeting MSM (532 MSM tested into the program studied). This HIV testing reached people at high risk of HIV, on third of these was little or not tested in other testing facilities. Among the 15 patients who tested positive (2.8%), 12 (80%) received confirmation and linked to care (median CD4 count =550 cells/mm3). The fifth study, a case-control study conducted in MSM in northern France (53 cases of early syphilis and 90 controls) showed receptive oral sex without a condom and anal sex toy use as the main risk factors for syphilis acquisition. Our results highlight limitations of current HIV testing strategies. They show the importance of promoting routine HIV testing in primary care settings, and extension of testing facilities that target populations with specific risk. In addition, they enhanced prevention for risk reduction measures for HIV and STIs. In the era of effective and well tolerated but expensive antiretroviral therapy, testing and prevention are significant issues in the control of the HIV epidemic.

Introdução No contexto da valorização crescente do teste anti-HIV como estratégia de prevenção programática, a promoção do teste anti-HIV como estratégia de prevenção entre homens que fazem sexo com homens (HSH) é fundamental. Objetivo - Analisar os fatores associados tanto ao uso rotineiro como episódico do teste anti-HIV. Métodos - Os participantes foram 946 HSH entrevistados pelo Projeto SampaCentro em locais de sociabilidade HSH da região central de São Paulo entre novembro de 2011 e janeiro de 2012, nunca testados ou que procuraram o teste espontaneamente. A metodologia de amostragem foi a time-space-sampling e foram utilizados protocolos do Stata 12.0 para análise de amostras complexas. Os homens que se testaram por rotina ou episodicamente foram comparados aos nunca testados. As variáveis analisadas nos dois modelos de regressão de Poisson foram divididas em três níveis: características sociodemográficas (primeiro nível); socialização na comunidade gay e exposição da orientação sexual, discriminação e opiniões e atitudes em relação ao HIV/Aids e ao teste (segundo nível); percepção de risco, estratégias de prevenção e práticas e parcerias sexuais (terceiro nível). Resultados Os homens que se testaram rotineiramente eram mais velhos e moradores no Centro de SP. Além disso, tinham exposto a orientação sexual para profissional de saúde, sido discriminados em serviços de saúde mas não por amigos e/ou vizinhos (em razão da sexualidade) e não mencionaram medo do resultado do teste como motivo para HSH não se testarem. Também tinham maior probabilidade de conhecer pessoa soropositiva e de ter parcerias estáveis sem sexo anal desprotegido nas casuais (comparado a ter apenas parcerias casuais protegidas). Os homens que se testaram episodicamente eram mais velhos, residentes do Centro de SP, não moravam com parentes, expuseram sua orientação sexual para profissional de saúde, não reportaram medo do resultado do teste como barreira, conheciam pessoa soropositiva e mencionaram parceria estável sem sexo desprotegido com parceiro casual ou então sexo desprotegido em parcerias casuais (comparado a ter apenas parcerias casuais protegidas). Conclusões Os mais jovens, os que moram fora do centro de São Paulo, e os que expões menos sua orientação sexual são os segmentos que menos se testam rotineira ou episodicamente. Assim, dependem de ações para que seu direito seja protegido e assegurado. A estigmatização e a discriminação da homossexualidade deve ser combatida para que não impeça o acesso ao teste e a outros serviços de saúde. Disseminar informações e socializar os mais jovens para o diálogo sobre as estratégias de prevenção biomédicas e estratégias comunitárias de prevenção é necessário. Para ampliar o acesso e qualidade da testagem como recurso fundamental de programas de prevenção permanece o desafio de sustentar o debate sobre sexualidade e prevenção a cada geração, assim como nos programas de formação de educadores e de profissionais de saúde de todas as áreas. / Introduction The relevance of HIV testing is growing in programmatic policies. Promoting HIV testing among men who have sex with men (MSM) is of utter importance. Objective Analyze factors associated with routine and episodic use of HIV testing. Methods Our participants were selected from the database of Projeto SampaCentro, a time-location sampling serobehavioral surveillance survey of MSM in São Paulo, Brazil, that took place between November 2011 and January 2012. Our participants were 946 MSM not HIV positive who were never tested or whose last testing was client-initiated. All analysis were performed using complex samples protocols in Stata 12.0. Men were divided in routine testers, episodic testers and men who had never tested. Routine testers and episodic testers were compared to those who had never tested using two Poisson regression models. Variables were divided in three levels of analysis: sociodemographic (first level); socialization in gay community and disclosure of sexual orientation, discrimination, attitudes and opinions on HIV/AIDS and testing (second level); risk perception, prevention strategies and sexual practices and partnerships (third level). Results Routine testers were older and lived in Central São Paulo, had more frequently disclosed their sexual orientation to a health professional and been discriminated against in health service settings, were less likely to having suffered discrimination from friends and/or neighbors and to point fear as a barrier to testing, were more likely to know someone infected with HIV and to mention steady partners without unprotected anal intercourse (UAI) with casual partners (compared to having only casual partners with no UAI). Episodic testers were also older and more likely to live in Central São Paulo, less likely to live with relatives, more likely to have disclosed their sexual orientation to a health professional, less likely to point fear as a barrier to testing, more likely to know someone infected with HIV. This group more frequently mentioned steady partners without UAI with casual partners and UAI with casual partners, regardless of mentioning steady partners (compared to having only casual partners with no events of UAI). Conclusion Young MSM, those who live outside Central São Paulo and those less ready to disclose their sexual orientation are the MSM segments that are less likely to test, routinely or episodically. Therefore, programmatic actions are needed to ensure their rights are protected. Stigmatization and discrimination of homosexuality must be mitigated so that it wont be a barrier to information about prevention and testing services. Additionally, information on biomedical and communitarian prevention technologies must be shared and presented to those not yet familiar with these strategies. In order to improve access and quality of testing, the challenge of sustaining the debate about sex, sexuality and prevention remains, as new generations of MSM will need to be introduced to this debate. The same is true for the course curriculum of health professionals and educators.

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No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Andreia Alves de Andrade - 2016.pdf: 1386895 bytes, checksum: 6f80be3c2d79383a9a1b2a10381fbac7 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-02-29 / Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico - CNPq / Hepatitis C is the most common cause of chronic liver disease. Men who have sex with men (MSM) may be at increased risk of acquiring infections transmitted by parenteral and sexual routes, such as hepatitis C. Despite the relevance of this subject, only one investigation regarding hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection in MSM was conducted in Brazil. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the prevalence of HCV infection and risk practices among men who have sex with men in the City of Goiânia, Goiás. Cross-sectional study conducted in 522 MSM in Goiania, recruited by respondent-method driven sampling (RDS), from March to November 2014. After signing the informed consent, participants were interviewed about sociodemographic and risk behaviors/practices for HCV infection and then blood samples collected. All samples were subjected to determine the levels of alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase (ALT and AST) and anti-HCV marker detection. Samples that had high levels of ALT/AST and/or were anti-HCV positive were tested for HCV RNA by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and the positive samples were genotyped by a line probe assay (LiPA). Of 522 samples, four were anti-HCV positive and 14 had high levels of ALT/AST. Of these, only two (Y-421/anti-HCV positive and Y-180/anti-HCV negative/elevated ALT and AST) were HCV RNA positive, and then were genotyped by LiPA as genotype 1, subtypes 1a and 1b. Thus, five samples were anti-HCV and/or HCV RNA positive, resulting in an adjusted prevalence of 1.71% (95% CI: 0.32-8.55) for HCV infection among MSM in Goiânia-GO. Despite it is a low prevalence, many risk behaviors/practices were reported by the studied individuals (tattoo/piercing, sharing of personal hygiene tools, illicit drug use, multiple sexual partners in lifetime, sex with more than one partner in the same relationship, sex with a drug user partner, non-use or occasional condom use during anal sex, alcohol/drug use during sex, among others), which may characterize the target population as potentially vulnerable to infectious diseases transmitted by parenteral and sexual routes. / A hepatite C é a causa mais frequente de doença hepática crônica. Homens que fazem sexo com homens (HSH) podem apresentar risco aumentado em adquirir infecções transmitidas pelas vias parenteral e sexual, como a hepatite C. Apesar da relevância desse tema, apenas uma investigação sobre a infecção pelo vírus da hepatite C (HCV) foi conduzida no Brasil em HSH. Assim, o presente estudo teve como objetivo investigar a prevalência da infecção pelo HCV e práticas de risco em homens que fazem sexo com homens na cidade de Goiânia, Goiás. Estudo de corte transversal conduzido em 522 HSH em Goiânia, recrutados pelo método respondent-driven sampling (RDS), de março a novembro de 2014. Após assinatura do termo de consentimento livre e esclarecido, os participantes foram entrevistados sobre dados sociodemográficos e comportamentos/práticas de risco para infecção pelo HCV e, em seguida, amostras sanguíneas coletadas. Todas as amostras foram submetidas à dosagem dos níveis de alanina aminotransferase e aspartato aminotransferase (ALT e AST) e à detecção do marcador anti-HCV. As amostras que apresentaram níveis de ALT/AST elevados e/ou anti-HCV positivas foram testadas para detecção do RNA viral pela reação em cadeia pela polimerase pós-transcrição reversa (RT-PCR), sendo as positivas genotipadas pelo line probe assay (LiPA). Das 522 amostras, quatro foram anti-HCV positivas e 14 apresentaram níveis elevados de ALT/AST. Destas, apenas duas (Y-421/anti-HCV positiva e Y-180/anti-HCV negativa/ALT e AST elevadas) foram RNA HCV positivas, sendo genotipadas pelo LiPA como do genótipo 1, subtipos 1a e 1b. Portanto, cinco amostras foram anti-HCV e/ou RNA HCV positivas, resultando em uma prevalência ajustada de 1,71% (IC 95%: 0,32-8,55) para infecção pelo HCV em HSH em Goiânia-GO. Apesar desta prevalência ser baixa, vários comportamentos/práticas de riscos foram relatados pelos individuos estudados (tatuagem/piercing, compartilhamento de objetos cortantes de higiene pessoal, uso de drogas ilícitas, múltiplos parceiros sexuais ao longo da vida, sexo com mais de um parceiro na mesma relação, sexo com parceiro usuário de drogas, não uso/uso ocasional de preservativo no sexo anal, relação sexual sob efeito de álcool/drogas, dentre outros), caracterizando a população-alvo como potencialmente vulnerável às doenças infecciosas transmitidas pelas vias parenteral e/ou sexual.

Les orientations en matière de lutte contre le VIH/Sida s’accordent sur la nécessité de mettre en œuvre une offre de prévention plus diversifiée pour limiter les nouvelles infections auprès des populations les plus touchées par l’épidémie. En Afrique de l’Ouest, les hommes ayant des relations sexuelles avec les hommes (HSH) sont particulièrement vulnérables à l’infection par le VIH. Dans ce contexte, la réponse des programmes VIH repose principalement sur les services de santé offerts par les associations communautaires. Cependant, peu de données sont disponibles sur les HSH séronégatifs bénéficiant d’une offre diversifiée de prévention en Afrique de l’Ouest, aussi bien sur leurs motivations à être suivi dans des services communautaires que sur leurs comportements sexuels à risque. Ce travail s’appuie sur les données recueillies dans une cohorte interventionnelle (CohMSM) offrant aux HSH séronégatifs un suivi trimestriel préventif mise en œuvre par des associations communautaires (Mali, Côte d’Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Togo). Les résultats montrent que les besoins de ces participants sont en faveur d’une offre de santé sexuelle globale. L’accès à la PrEP est également considéré par les HSH comme un besoin prioritaire au regard de leurs comportements sexuels à risque. Cette thèse a également permis de mieux identifier les HSH présentant un risque élevé d’exposition à l’infection par le VIH. Le suivi préventif offert semble aussi réduire les pratiques sexuelles à risque des HSH les plus exposés au risque d’infection. Ces résultats contribuent ainsi à mieux appréhender la mise en place d’une offre diversifiée de prévention auprès des HSH dans un cadre communautaire. / The new HIV/AIDS guidelines recommend a combined package consisting of multiple preventive strategies to limit new infections among the most affected populations. In West Africa, men who have sex with men (MSM) are especially vulnerable to HIV infection. In this context, the response of HIV programs primarily relies on healthcare services provided by community-based organizations. However, there is limited data regarding HIV-negative MSM accessing a combined preventive package in West Africa as well as on their motivations for being followed-up in community-based services and on their risky sexual behaviors. This work used the data collected from an interventional cohort (CohMSM) offering a quarterly preventive follow-up to HIV-negative MSM in community-based settings in four West African countries (Mali, Côte d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Togo). The results demonstrate that the needs of the participants are in favor of a comprehensive sexual health offer. Access to PrEP is also considered by MSM as a priority need in view of their high-risk sexual behaviors. This also helps to better identify MSM who are at high-risk of exposure to HIV infection. Furthermore, the quarterly preventive follow-up also appears to reduce risky sexual practices in MSM most at risk. Thus, these results contribute to a better understanding of the implementation of a combined prevention package for MSM in a community setting.

Objetivos: Investigar a prevalência de depressão no grupo de homens participantes do estudo, relacionar a incidência de depressão a baixa adesão e prevalência de depressão por faixa etária. Metodologia: Os 216 pacientes, (100 HSM e 116 HSH) foram submetidos ao questionário de investigação de depressão de BECK no ato do comparecimento às consultas previamente agendadas pelo setor responsável. O questionário consiste em 21 grupos de afirmações. Para investigação de aderência foi utilizado o questionário START. Resultados: Encontramos relação entre depressão e baixa adesão nestes pacientes, independente de faixa etária e orientação sexual. O estudo aponta que homens que fazem sexo com homens (HSH) é 2,0 prevalente em depressão, Conclusões: Por ser este um grupo que recebe cuidados há muito tempo por parte da equipe médica, o índice de adesão foi alto, mesmo em pacientes deprimidos. O grupo HSH mostrou-se claramente mais suscetível a desenvolver depressão, numa escala 2 vezes maior que o grupo HSM, quadros de depressão interferirem negativamente no desenrolar da doença com queda na adesão. O resultado deste trabalho (no grupo estudado a taxa de adesão encontrada é de 90%) indica que uma equipe multidisciplinar funcional pode mudar o curso da doença em pacientes vulneráveis ao desenvolvimento de quadros de depressão. Ações profiláticas diagnosticando e prevenindo quadros de depressão aumentam o índice de aderência dos pacientes, evitando comorbidades no curso da infecção por HIV/AIDS / Objectives: To investigate the prevalence of depression in the group of men participating in the study, the incidence of depression relate to low adherence and consider prevalence of depression by age. Methods: The 216 patients (100 MSW and 116 MSM) underwent questionnaire BECK depression research in attendance Act consultations previously scheduled by the responsible sector. The questionnaire consists of 21 groups of claims. For adherence research was used questionnaire START. Results: There was a relationship between depression and low adherence in these patients, regardless of age and sexual orientation. The study indicates that men infected in sexual contact with person of the same sex is 2.0 prevalent in depression Conclusions: Since this is a group that receives care for a long time by the medical staff, the adherence rate was high, even in depressed patients. The MSM group showed clearly more susceptible to developing depression, a scale 2 times the MSW group, shows the possibility of cases of depression negatively interfere in the course of the disease. This work indicates that a functional multidisciplinary team changes the course of disease in patients vulnerable to develop depression symptoms. Prophylaxis, diagnosing and preventing manifestations of depression increase the adhesion rate of the patients, avoiding comorbidities in the course of HIV infection / AIDS