abstract: The South African Middle Stone Age (MSA), spanning the Middle to Late Pleistocene (Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 8-3) witnessed major climatic and environmental change and dramatic change in forager technological organization including lithic raw material selection. Homo sapiens emerged during the MSA and had to make decisions about how to organize technology to cope with environmental stressors, including lithic raw material selection, which can effect tool production and application, and mobility. This project studied the role and importance of lithic raw materials in the technological organization of foragers by focusing on why lithic raw material selection sometimes changed when the behavioral and environmental context changed. The study used the Pinnacle Point (PP) MSA record (MIS6-3) in the Mossel Bay region, South Africa as the test case. In this region, quartzite and silcrete with dramatically different properties were the two most frequently exploited raw materials, and their relative abundances change significantly through time. Several explanations intertwined with major research questions over the origins of modern humans have been proposed for this change. Two alternative lithic raw material procurement models were considered. The first, a computational model termed the Opportunistic Acquisition Model, posits that archaeological lithic raw material frequencies are due to opportunistic encounters during random walk. The second, an analytical model termed the Active-Choice Model drawn from the principles of Optimal Foraging Theory, posits that given a choice, individuals will choose the most cost effective means of producing durable cutting tools in their environment and will strategically select those raw materials. An evaluation of the competing models found that lithic raw material selection was a strategic behavior in the PP record. In MIS6 and MIS5, the selection of quartzite was driven by travel and search cost, while during the MIS4, the joint selection of quartzite and silcrete was facilitated by a mobility strategy that focused on longer or more frequent stays at PP coupled with place provisioning. Further, the result suggests that specific raw materials and technology were relied on to obtain food resources and perform processing tasks suggesting knowledge about raw material properties and suitability for tasks. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Anthropology 2017

O estilo tecnológico é resultado de escolhas culturalmente determinadas, que se refletem na seleção das matérias primas, nas técnicas e seqüências de produção e nos resultados materiais destas escolhas. A comparação entre estilos tecnológicos de distintas indústrias líticas de uma mesma região permite, portanto, antever a possibilidade de distinção entre identidades sociais ou culturais no registro arqueológico. Buscando testar a validade desta premissa teórica para o estudo da variabilidade artefatual das indústrias líticas do sul do Brasil, analisamos de forma comparativa os conjuntos líticos da região do Alto rio dos Sinos, Rio Grande do Sul, relacionados a grupos de caçadores coletores, associados à Tradição Umbu, e a dois distintos grupos de horticultores, das Tradições Guarani e Taquara. / Technological style can be defined as the result of cultural choices reflected in different strategies of raw materials selections and debidage techniques related to the production of lithic artifacts. Therefore, it can be used to identify cultural or social identity in the archaeological record through the analysis of lithic assemblages. This concept was used to interpret the artefactual variability of lithic assemblages related to three different prehistoric settlement systems that occupied the Sinos River Valley (Rio Grande do Sul State, southern Brazil), between 8.800 and 440 BP: the hunter-gatherers of Umbu Tradition and the horticulturalists of Taquara and Guarani Traditions.

Esta dissertação apresenta o resultado de um levantamento de sítios líticos caçadores-coletores no alto rio das Almas nos contrafortes ocidentais da Serra de Paranapiacaba. Dados sobre as indústrias líticas relacionadas são fornecidos sucintamente e comparadas às pesquisas desenvolvidas no Médio Ribeira por De Blasis (1988). Em acréscimo, esta Dissertação trata de estabelecer parâmetros para a compreensão da formação de sítios arqueológicos detectados em profundidade em porções de alta vertente, datados do Holoceno Médio. A continuidade de grupos caçadores-coletores na área de pesquisa é delimitada entre 5920 e 1000 anos AP e, em face a este período, tratamos de reconstruir os cenários sob transformação ambiental regional em a que estiveram submetidos esses grupos humanos e seus assentamentos. Nossa contribuição é desvincular os estudos sobre grupos caçadores-coletores do cunho hiper-determinista da tecno-tipologia lítica para uma discussão mais ampla que dialogue de forma transdisciplinar com a geomorfologia, a palinologia e a espeleologia. / This thesis provides the results of an archaeological survey focused in hunter-gatherer settlements from Upper Almas valley, on the western side of Paranapiacaba Mountains. Dates from lithics analysis associated to these sites are compared with results from Middle Ribeira valley, developed by De Blasis (1988). In addition, this Thesis treats to establish frames of reference to understand the formation processes of archaeological sites settled during the Middle Holocene in high depth on high portions of the mountains. The hunter-gatherer continuity between 5920 and 1000 yr BP in the studied area is approached by a paleoambiental treatment: our additional goal is to reconstruct the scenarios of environmental transformations in which these human groups developed their History. Furthermore, this thesis provides an instance to reduce the technological approach over these groups, opening an ecosystem approach which includes dates from palinology, geomorphology and espeleology.

<p>In many interpretations of hunter-gatherer settlement systems, archaeologists have assumed implicitly or explicitly that a pattern of mobilitybased on seasonally-scheduled movements between different site locations waspracticed. This pattern of mobility is often characterized as a seasonal round, where different locations are used during specific times of the year for different purposes. An implication of this pattern of mobility is that short-term occupation sites are visited annually, approximately at the same time each year and longer-term residential sites can span multiple seasons. To interpret seasonality, indirect indicators are often used but the high-resolution methods presented in this study provide direct evidence of seasonal site occupation. The Pacific Northwest Coast provides an ideal landscape to examine seasonality since many of the staple resources, particularly salmon, were available on a seasonal basis. Contrary to longstanding assumptions of regular seasonal movement between sites, the analysis of shell samples from multiple archaeological sites from distinct regions in British Columbia show complex patterns of multi-seasonal occupation at smaller campsites and specific seasonal or multi-seasonal emphasis in occupation and/or shellfish harvest at longer-term residential sites.</p> <p>To identify patterns of shellfish harvest, stable oxygen isotope analysis and high-resolution sclerochronology were applied to the bivalve <em>Saxidomus gigantea</em> (butter clam). Combined with shell growth increment analysis to examine relative levels of harvest pressure, local rates of shellfish collecting are also interpreted. To examine regional variability in seasonality and resource use in British Columbia, three environmentally and historically distinct areas were selected spanning approximately 6000 years of history. These regions include the central coast in the tradition territory of the Heiltsuk, and two areas on the northern coast, specifically the Dundas Islands Group and Prince Rupert Harbour in the traditional territory of the Tsimshian. The results of the analysis show site-specific trends in shellfish harvesting on the central coast; a pattern which is not as clear on the northern coast. Sites on the Dundas Islands show multi-seasonal collection and a stronger emphasis on winter shellfish harvesting. The results also show that shellfish were harvested more intensively in the Dundas Islands area relative to the central coast. The pattern of seasonal shellfish harvesting on the mainland coast at village sites in Prince Rupert Harbour is similar to the pattern found at long-term residential sites on the central coast. With respect to the dietary importance of clams, another longstanding issue in Northwest Coast archaeology, the results show a mix of patterns including casual resource use at most campsites, intensive multi-season harvest in some regions and strategic multi-season harvest and spring consumption at some residential sites.</p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

The history of death is entangled with the history of changing social values, meaning that a shift in attitudes to death will be consistent with changes in a society’s world view. Late Mesolithic shell middens in the Tagus and Sado valleys, Portugal, constitute some of the largest and earliest burial grounds known, arranged and maintained by people with a hunting, fishing, and foraging lifestyle, c 6000–5000 cal BCE. These sites have been interpreted in the light of economic and environmental processes as territorial claims to establish control over limited resources. This approach does not explain the significance of the frequent disposal of the dead in neighbouring burial grounds, and how these places were meaningful and socially recognized. The aim of this dissertation is to answer these questions through the detailed analysis of museum collections of human burials from these sites, excavated between the late nineteenth century and the 1960s. I examine the burial activity of the last hunter-gatherers of the south-western Iberian Peninsula from an archaeological perspective, and explain the burial phenomenon through the lens of historical and humanist approaches to death and hunter-gatherers, on the basis of theoretical concepts of social memory, place, mortuary ritual practice, and historical processes. Human burials are investigated in terms of time and practice based on the application of three methods: radiocarbon dating and Bayesian analysis to define the chronological framework of the burial activity at each site and valley; stable isotope analysis of carbon and nitrogen aimed at defining the burial populations by the identification of dietary choices; and archaeothanatology to reconstruct and define central practices in the treatment of the dead. This dissertation provides new perspectives on the role and relevance of the shell middens in the Tagus and Sado valleys. Hunter-gatherers frequenting these sites were bound by shared social practices, which included the formation and maintenance of burial grounds, as a primary means of history making. Death rituals played a central role in the life of these hunter-gatherers in developing a sense of community, as well as maintaining social ties in both life and death.

Traditionally, Sceletium tortuosum has been used as a medicine and for social and spiritual purposes. The genus is distributed in the south-western parts of South Africa. This project phytochemically analysed and characterised Sceletium plant extracts and determined if any extract showed anti-malarial properties. Extracts were prepared in ethanol and methanol and various compounds were purified using column chromatography with hexane and ethyl acetate as mobile phase. The structure of isolated compounds, including mesembrine, pinitol, sucrose, mesembrenone and obtusalin, was confirmed using NMR. The Plasmodium Lactate dehydrogenase assay was used to screen all extracts and mesembrine to show that four extracts showed antimalarial activity with activity values ranging between 1.47 μg/ml and 7.32 μg/ml, well below the 10 μg/ml cut off value. The study recommends extracting compounds from fresh plant material and further research as to anti-malarial activity of compounds isolated from Sceletium tortuosum / Life and Consumer Sciences / M. Sc. (Life Sciences)

A presente pesquisa pretende compreender a ocupação dos grupos caçadorescoletores na região central do Estado de São Paulo, na Bacia do Rio Tietê, em seu médio curso. Através da análise de três sítios líticos, dois na região de Araraquara e um na região de Jaú, realizamos estudos intra e inter-sítios, além da comparação dos resultados com trabalhos já realizados nas áreas adjacentes e também com a literatura específica. Destacando uma abordagem regional, buscamos trabalhar questões como intensidade de material arqueológico, estratigrafia, o tamanho dos sítios, a distância entre eles, como se deu sua implantação na paisagem; identificar as áreas de atividades restritas e a tecnologia da indústria lítica. A partir desses resultados, como intuito final, lançamos hipóteses sobre possíveis relações de contato entre os sítios, como os grupos caçadores-coletores se aproveitaram do ambiente nessa região, percebendo assim, sua mobilidade no território, e o tempo de ocupação. / This research aims to understand the occupation of hunter-gatherers groups in the central region of São Paulo State, on Tietê River Basin, in its middle course. Through analysis of three lithic sites, two in the Araraquara Region and one in Jaú Region, we have done intra and inter-sites studies, beyond the comparison of results with work done in areas adjacent and also with the specific literature. Emphasizing a regional approach, we sought work issues such as intensity of archaeological material, stratigraphy, the size of sites, the distance between them, how occurred their settlement in landscape, identify the restricted areas activities and the technology of the lithic industry. From these results, we released hypotheses about possible relationships of contact between the sites, how hunter-gatherers groups took advantage of the environment in this region, realizing thus, their mobility in the territory, and the time of occupation.

A presente pesquisa pretende compreender a ocupação dos grupos caçadorescoletores na região central do Estado de São Paulo, na Bacia do Rio Tietê, em seu médio curso. Através da análise de três sítios líticos, dois na região de Araraquara e um na região de Jaú, realizamos estudos intra e inter-sítios, além da comparação dos resultados com trabalhos já realizados nas áreas adjacentes e também com a literatura específica. Destacando uma abordagem regional, buscamos trabalhar questões como intensidade de material arqueológico, estratigrafia, o tamanho dos sítios, a distância entre eles, como se deu sua implantação na paisagem; identificar as áreas de atividades restritas e a tecnologia da indústria lítica. A partir desses resultados, como intuito final, lançamos hipóteses sobre possíveis relações de contato entre os sítios, como os grupos caçadores-coletores se aproveitaram do ambiente nessa região, percebendo assim, sua mobilidade no território, e o tempo de ocupação. / This research aims to understand the occupation of hunter-gatherers groups in the central region of São Paulo State, on Tietê River Basin, in its middle course. Through analysis of three lithic sites, two in the Araraquara Region and one in Jaú Region, we have done intra and inter-sites studies, beyond the comparison of results with work done in areas adjacent and also with the specific literature. Emphasizing a regional approach, we sought work issues such as intensity of archaeological material, stratigraphy, the size of sites, the distance between them, how occurred their settlement in landscape, identify the restricted areas activities and the technology of the lithic industry. From these results, we released hypotheses about possible relationships of contact between the sites, how hunter-gatherers groups took advantage of the environment in this region, realizing thus, their mobility in the territory, and the time of occupation.

Les cultures néolithiques atteignent le territoire français vers 5600-5200 cal. BC. Bien que les données de l'ADN ancien apportent depuis peu un nouvel éclairage concernant les modalités de diffusion(s) du Néolithique en Europe, de telles données restaient inexistantes concernant les premiers groupes fermiers s'implantant sur le territoire français. Ce travail propose donc l'analyse inédite du pool génétique des groupes humains de cinq sites du Néolithique ancien et moyen (5200-3600 cal. BC), répartis sur la partie nord du territoire français et représentatifs de la diversité culturelle de la période, y compris au niveau des pratiques funéraires. Un total de 88 haplogroupes et 63 haplotypes mitochondriaux a pu être caractérisé. À l'échelle régionale, une continuité claire est démontrée entre les groupes du courant danubien et ceux de la moitié nord de la France. Cependant, les données issues de la nécropole de Gurgy (Yonne, sud du Bassin parisien) montrent un métissage avec des groupes néolithiques issus du courant méditerranéen et un métissage précoce avec des descendants des chasseurs-cueilleurs. Ce dernier, également détecté à Fleury-sur-Orne (Normandie), renforce l'hypothèse d'un métissage croissant entre chasseurs-cueilleurs et fermiers vers l'ouest du continent. À l'échelle locale, les résultats révèlent une frappante diversité des schémas de fonctionnement des groupes. À Obernai (Alsace) des groupes maternellement et culturellement différenciés semblent utiliser successivement la nécropole, mais de façon sectorisée. À Gurgy, aucune corrélation entre lignées maternelles et organisation de la nécropole ou pratiques funéraires n'a pu être identifiée, impliquant une acculturation totale (au niveau funéraire) d'individus aux origines multiples. Enfin, à Fleury-sur-Orne, une continuité maternelle entre individus déposés au sein de monuments de type Passy et de dolmens plus tardifs (sépultures collectives) est démontrée, suggérant une évolution sociale complexe du groupe. Enfin, l'importante diversité mitochondriale observée sur l'ensemble des sites apparaît cohérente avec un système matrimonial de type patrilocal, incluant l'intégration de femmes chasseurs-cueilleurs au sein des groupes fermiers au début du Néolithique. / The study of ancient DNA has recently shed new light on the different Neolithic expansion waves into Europe, however no palaeogenetic data was available for first farmer groups that settled modern day France from 5600-5200 cal. BC. Here we present the first analysis of the gene pool from five Early and Middle Neolithic sites (5200-3600 cal. BC) spread across northern France that are representative of both the period’s cultural diversity and variable funerary practices. A total of 88 mitochondrial haplogroups and 63 haplotypes could be identified. At the regional scale, a clear continuity is evident between Danubian populations and the farmer groups that settled the northern half of France. However, data from the Gurgy necropolis (Yonne) south of the Paris Basin evinces admixture with Neolithic groups from the Mediterranean expansion wave as well as early admixture with descendants of hunter-gatherer groups. This latter pattern is also observable at Fleury-sur-Orne (Normandy), reinforcing the hypothesis of increasing admixture between hunter-gatherers and farmers from eastern to western Europe. More locally, our data shows a clear diversity in the funerary organization of farmer groups. At Obernai (Alsace), maternally and culturally differentiated groups seem to have successively used different sectors to bury their dead. At Gurgy, no correlation between maternal lineages and necropolis organization or funerary practices could be identified, implying the complete acculturation of individuals with diverse ancestries, at least in terms of burial practices. Finally, at Fleury-sur-Orne, a maternal continuity between individuals buried in Passy-type structures and later dolmens (collective burials) is evident, suggesting a complex social evolution of the group. Finally, the substantial mitochondrial diversity observed in all sites appears consistent with a patrilocal kinship system, including the integration of hunter-gatherer females in Early Neolithic farmer groups.

The skeletal material used in this thesis consists of 258 individuals, whereas 179 individuals had the requirements entailed for an analysis of health and lifestyles. In other words, their sex and age had been osteologically determined. In addition, they are either young adults, adults, or seniors, as infants and subadults usually die before skeletal changes. Males represent 63 percent (n=112) and females 37 percent (n=67) of the material. The material is collected from a Stone Age dwelling site in Ajvide, Gotland, and six Medieval churches in Visby, Gotland: St Hans, St Per, St Clemens, Ryska Kyrkan, St Gertrud and St Mikael. One of the most noticeable traits caused by a change in subsistence strategies is an increase in enamel hypoplasia, cribra orbitalia, degenerative joint diseases, and activity-related pathologies, as well as a decrease in oral health. Therefore, the population of Medieval Visby was exposed to more stressors in the shape of infections and malnutrition. Furthermore, the high amount of degenerative joint diseases also indicates a more physically strenuous life. / Skelettmaterialet som använts i denna uppsats består av 258 individer, varav 179 individer uppfyllde de krav som krävdes för en lyckad analys. Individerna måste alltså ha en känd ålder och kön, dessutom exkluderades spädbarn och juvenila, då de oftast avled innan skeletala förändringar. I materialet representerade männen 63 procent (n=112) och kvinnorna 37 procent (n=67) av den totala mängden skelett. Materialet hade blivit insamlad från stenåldersboplatsen Ajvide på Gotland samt sex medeltida kyrkor från Visby, Gotland: St Hans, St Per, St Clemens, Ryska Kyrkan, St Gertrud och St Mikael. Noterbara förändringar är en ökning i emaljhypoplasi, cribra orbitalia, degenerativa ledsjukdomar, aktivitet-relaterade patologier samt försämrad oral hälsa. Detta tyder på att den medeltida befolkningen utsattes för mer stress i form av infektioner och undernäring. Mängden degenerativa ledsjukdomar indikerar dessutom på ett mer fysiskt ansträngande liv.