A chief human characteristic is the desire and ability to change the world. Prior planning is crucial when those changes are complex and extensive, and require the cooperation of many people. To satisfy this need, many disciplines have developed specialized notations for representing the plans. Developers in one discipline, computer-based instruction, are burdened by the current need to use two separate notations. Instructional experts design the instruction and represent the design with a primary representation. The instruction described in a primary representation is easy to see, which makes the representation suitable for evaluation, communication, and enhancement. Programmers translate the primary representation into a computer program, which is able to run on a computer but is a secondary representation. The problem with this process is that the primary representation is equivocal or ambiguous. Equivocal representations are subject to multiple interpretations; it is also possible for programmers to introduce errors during translation. Alternatively, the computer program is unequivocal, but the instruction that is evident in the primary representation diffuses into the program, becoming obscure and difficult to use for further evaluation, communication, or enhancement. A representation that is both unequivocal and primary benefits computer-based instructional development by eliminating ambiguity and translation errors while preserving the instructional details for later use. A representation is unequivocal if it is computable, and it is primary if it is able to represent the dynamic behaviors of complex instruction and its use as a design language can be demonstrated in published literature. My research evaluated and compared two design languages, PEAnets (networks of processes, entities, and actions) and the Unified Modeling Language, as potential unequivocal primary representations. Two translators, one for each language, were developed as a part of this research, and four complex computer-based instructional examples were created and translated into operational computer-based instruction. The translators demonstrated that both representations are computable, and the examples demonstrated that both languages are sufficiently robust to represent complex computer-based instructional systems. Both languages have been used successfully for designing instruction or general computer systems. I concluded, based on these observations, that both languages qualify as unequivocal primary representations.

The primary goal of this project has been to research and create aesthetic visual environments in distance-learning media through the application of expert criteria and to explore the effects of those environments on student satisfaction and motivation. To accomplish this three instructors with distinct courses were selected to apply aesthetic criteria within the process of analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. Courses selected were Art Appreciation -- ARTS 1100, Advanced Surveying -- ENGR 2502, and Introduction to Sociology -- SOCI 1101. The project goal was subdivided into four objectives. 1) Develop criteria for the inclusion of visual aesthetics in the online environment. 2) Design and develop online courses using guidelines for the inclusion of aesthetics. 3) Collect and compare data from students about the level of satisfaction with the aesthetic appearance of the online environment. 4) Explore the effect of an aesthetic environment on student motivation. This project has demonstrated the environments of distance learning courses can be improved through the application of aesthetic principles. The selected criteria were useful to this Instructional Designer and could prove successful in improving the appearance of other online courses.

Learning from worked examples typically involves study activities, involving reading such materials carefully and attempting to understand the information presented. Considerable evidence has amassed regarding the benefits for novices of studying appropriately constructed worked examples paired with practice questions. However, prior research from the cognitive and sports psychology literatures suggests mental practice of worked examples may be an effective adjunct to studying such materials. Meta-analyses of these literatures suggest the utility of mental practice depends upon the degree of cognitive elements contained within a task, and also suggest that some prior knowledge of a task is necessary for mental practice to be effective. The present series of studies aimed to identify conditions under which mental practice is effective in educationally realistic, highly cognitive domains. Based on the above meta-analytic results, mental practice was hypothesised to enhance learning over further study in highly cognitive domains, but only when students either had sufficient prior knowledge, or were able to develop such knowledge over the course of an instructional intervention. Study activities were primarily expected to support knowledge acquisition, while imagining-based activities (mental practice) were expected to support knowledge automation. The experiments herein thus investigated interactions between levels of prior knowledge, complexity of instructional material, and levels of learning from imagination versus conventional study strategies. In Experiment 1, under conditions of low prior knowledge and complex material (HTML), students who studied worked examples outperformed those who imagined. Experiment 2, using simplified but still complex materials and a similar participant pool, found no differences between conditions, but Experiment 3, using stricter experimental design, found a study effect. In Experiment 4, an imagination effect was found under high prior knowledge. Experiment 5, using less experienced learners, suggested those who studied outperformed those whom imagined on acquisition questions. Experiment 6 found a sequence of study then imagination is more effective than imagination then study. The results have broad application for effective sequencing of these instructional strategies, but development of an accurate metric for imagination "readiness" is required to advance theory and practice, and more evidence is needed for a schema automation explanation of mental practice effects.

<p>The adoption of information technology as an aid to organisational efficiency and effectiveness has a long history in business and public administration, but its application to the processes of teaching and learning in education has been relatively limited. At the dawn of the new millennium this began to change, as educational institutions around the world began to experiment with new ideas for the use of information technology. This happened at the same time that commercial organisations began to realise that they themselves could &ndash / because of the availability of IT based systems &ndash / invest in educational services focused on their own needs. It was against this background that this research project set out to study how South African higher education has incorporated new learning technologies in the delivery of programmes. The study began by exploring the emerging patterns of the use of e-learning in South African higher education. This was to establish a broad understanding of how e-learning was incorporated into the core business of universities. As the study progressed interviews with both teaching and support staff provided course descriptions which were used to expose the kind of considerations that were made in designing, developing and delivering those courses. The main purpose of the study was to answer the question: what pedagogical considerations are necessary for successful course design when using e-learning? By placing the course descriptions on a continuum developed as a part of the conceptual framework in the study it was possible to analyse the course design features that emerged. The framework and its differentiated learning designs (LD1/2/3) can be used for both design and evaluation of courses and can facilitate the use of technology in enhancing teaching and learning.</p>

This thesis explores the lived meaning of requiring, requesting and receiving information and communications technology (ICT) assistance for international students with limited or no background with ICT. The anecdotes and reflections shared by the participants delve into a range of feelings, from uncertainty, distress and condescension to fascination, determination and affirmation. They reach into places where the participants built their sense of competence and potential with and through ICT and felt indebted to their help providers in the process. The participants help seeking with ICT emerged as being a self-conscious search for discrete, non-judgmental, patient demonstration and guided practice, reliant upon the formation of reciprocal, helping relations with others. As a phenomenological study involving 10 participants, analysis sought for depth of meaning, contemplated in relation to philosophy, literature, art and personal experience. The theme of being lost in the logic of ICT and the maze of help seeking in a foreign environment emerge as a potent metaphor to guide tactful ICT help provision in diverse, post-secondary institutions marked by ubiquitous ICT integration.

Technology literacy is the latest achievement benchmark for 8th grade public school students under No Child Left Behind (NCLB). Although necessary for contemporary academic and professional success (Selfe, 1999; Pearson & Young, 2002), this benchmark is at odds with the legacy and current state of social inequities within American public education, as all students have not been provided with equal opportunities for engaging and safe learning environments (Kozol, 1991; Darling-Hammond, 2006)—much less technology enabled ones. The purpose of this qualitative study was to design culturally informed technology activities for urban middle school students in the Computer Assisted Debate (CAD) after school program and then observe the consequences of these activities within the community. The guiding research questions are: (1) What occurs in a CAD program community when an ethnographic approach to instructional design is implemented? (2) What is the impact of the culturally informed technology activities on the students and faculty within the CAD program community? Taking an ethnographic approach to instructional design, the researcher observed and participated in CAD after-school sessions at one urban middle school for 7 months. Data sources for the study included field notes, student artifacts, student and faculty interviews, and surveys. Evidence regarding their existing technology literacy knowledge base revealed varying levels of skills among the debate students, and that students themselves may not be able to calibrate what they know versus what they do not. Findings also revealed that the introduction of the activities influenced student participants’ technology literacy by allowing them to demonstrate web-based research skills. Other emergent topics regarding impact of the activities included classroom management, faculty curriculum materials, and visual instruction. Among other recommendations, the researcher found that activities should be designed to elicit a high level of student engagement and motivation, which tend to be unique for distinct student groups. The research findings contribute to scholarly literature regarding (1) developing innovative educational technology strategies to help urban kids learn and (2) instructional strategies within urban debate. Future studies should more closely examine consistent technology supported instruction over time and within urban debate, and debate faculty experiences regarding teaching with technology.

This study used a two-phased explanatory mixed-methods design to explore in-depth what factors are perceived by Instructional Design and Technology (IDT) professionals as impacting instructional design practice, how these factors are valued in the field, and what differences in perspectives exist between IDT managers and non-managers. For phase 1 of the study, one hundred and sixteen corporate IDT professionals (managers and non-managers) responded to a web-based survey that was designed and developed from: (a) The results of an exploratory study of the practices of corporate instructional designers, (b) the results of an extensive literature review into the theory and practice in the field of IDT, and (c) other survey instruments developed, validated and used in prior studies. Analysis of the data collected in phase 1 of the study resulted in the development of an Evaluation Model for IDT Practice that was used as a framework to answer the research questions. Quantitative analysis included the use of Hotelling’s T2 inferential statistic to test for mean differences between managers and non-managers perceptions of formal and informally trained groups of IDT personnel. Chi squared analysis test of independence, and correlation analysis was used to determine the nature and extent of the relationship between the type of training and the professional status of the participants. For phase 2 of the study, semi-structured interviews were conducted with selected participants and analyzed using the constant comparative method in order to help validate the findings from phase 1. Ensuing analysis of the survey data determined that, both managers and non-managers generally agreed that both formal and on the job training was valuable, and that their peers who were formally and informally trained were competent instructional designers. The qualitative phase of the study and a closer examination of effect sizes suggested the potential for some variation in perceptions. In addition, a statistically significant correlation showed that IDT managers who completed the survey were more likely to be formally trained. Recommendations based on the results included future studies with a larger, more diverse population; future studies to refine the Evaluation Model for ID practice; and that academic ID programs work more closely with practitioners when designing and delivering their curricula.

This thesis explores the lived meaning of requiring, requesting and receiving information and communications technology (ICT) assistance for international students with limited or no background with ICT. The anecdotes and reflections shared by the participants delve into a range of feelings, from uncertainty, distress and condescension to fascination, determination and affirmation. They reach into places where the participants built their sense of competence and potential with and through ICT and felt indebted to their help providers in the process. The participants help seeking with ICT emerged as being a self-conscious search for discrete, non-judgmental, patient demonstration and guided practice, reliant upon the formation of reciprocal, helping relations with others. As a phenomenological study involving 10 participants, analysis sought for depth of meaning, contemplated in relation to philosophy, literature, art and personal experience. The theme of being lost in the logic of ICT and the maze of help seeking in a foreign environment emerge as a potent metaphor to guide tactful ICT help provision in diverse, post-secondary institutions marked by ubiquitous ICT integration.

This phenomenological study explored the experiences of public health faculty, who developed and taught online courses, at one particular school of public health from 2006 to 2009. The goal was to explore and document the experiences of faculty involved with this phenomenon. A criterion sample was used to identify and select participants. Five public health faculty participated in the study. Data were analyzed in two ways. Written narratives, observational field notes, and artifact data were analyzed using the inducted grounded analysis technique. Interview data were analyzed using the phenomenological data analysis method, Stevic-Colazzi Keen Method. Findings revealed that the experiences of public health faculty, who develop and teach online courses were similar to those in other subjects and were described as difficult, daunting, painful, and time consuming, leaving the public health faculty feeling frustrated and exhausted. While negative feelings described the experience pertaining to the development of online courses, the experience in the teaching phase was seen as positive, enjoyable, joyful, refreshing, and fun. These experiences were found to be contingent upon instructional and organizational support, availability and quality of resources and faculty development and training. Three overarching themes emerged from the study in relation to the experience. These themes included the rhetoric of fear, transformation, and support. The rhetoric of fear described the participants’ sense of being afraid or apprehensive toward developing and teaching online courses. Transformation described the transition participants made as they emerged as online instructors. Support described the structures needed to engage in the activities of developing and teaching online courses. The study also revealed five types of barriers to developing and teaching online courses at this particular school of public health. These barriers included psychological, organizational, technical, instructional, and time barriers. Benefits for developing and teaching online courses were identified. They included availability for students, access and penetration into global markets, instructional innovation, design innovation, and new methods of instructional delivery. This study provides data that can be used by institutions and faculty as they design and implement social, political, and technical infrastructures to support the activities of online teaching.

This study employed a design-based research methodology to develop a theoretically sound approach for designing instructional treatments. The instruction of interest addressed the broad issue of physician wellness among medical school faculty, with particular emphasis on physician self-diagnosis and self-care. The theoretically sound approach comprised a domain theory and design framework. The domain theory was posited subsequent to an examination of the literature, and subjected to expert examination through three cycles of instructional treatment development. The design framework for crafting the treatment was created from components of existing frameworks, and evolved with the cycles of development. The instructional treatment was designed to be delivered to a web browser from a server using a Python microframework to preserve the anonymity of the end user. Experts in three relevant knowledge domains verified that the instructional treatment embodied the domain theory, and was suitable for use as a practical instructional treatment. Subsequently, a limited-time pilot deployment was initiated among practicing faculty physicians (N=273) to solicit user feedback. Responses were obtained through a survey instrument created for the purpose and hosted on a remote website. Although the response rate was low (12%), the responses were encouraging and useful for guiding future research and treatment development.