The aim of this study is to analyze how some teachers in the grades 4-6 differentiate reading instruction to develop and challenge pupils' reading comprehension. This study answers the following questions: How do some teachers introduce, implement and follow up their reading instructions? How do the teachers implement scaffolding in the different stages mentioned above? What challenges may the teachers face in their work with differentiated reading methods?  To answer these questions, the analysis has been based on classroom observations with three different teachers that teach in the grades 4-6. These observations have shown how the teachers differentiate and scaffold when they work with reading instruction. The empirical material was collected during observations of lessons in the Swedish subject. Furthermore, the study is based on Ann Carol Tomlinson's theoretical framework regarding funding as well as various theoretical frameworks regarding scaffolding. The results of the study indicate that the teachers differentiate their reading instruction in various ways to challenge and create opportunities for all students to participate in their own education based on their knowledge level. The teachers use varied working methods to create fellowship, differentiate in process, in content and in product and scaffold the students throughout the teaching.

Discharge instructions were originally created to alleviate the burden of transitioning from inpatient hospitalization to outpatient care. The US healthcare model's evolution throughout the 20th and 21st centuries has firmly distinguished inpatient providers from outpatient providers, with little continuity between them. As a patient leaves inpatient care there is an increasing need for clear discharge instructions to help navigate complex diseases and care regimens. However, comprehension of discharge instructions, both oral and written, is a major obstacle for many populations, with certain demographics especially affected. Populations with limited English proficiency (LEP), for example, are commonly provided discharge instructions in English, preventing them from fully engaging in their care and from understanding information that is paramount to a smooth transition to outpatient settings. Many factors contribute to the failure to provide this and other care in LEP patients' primary languages. Factors include but are not limited to: misinformation regarding price of interpreter services and time necessary to use these services, biases against LEP populations, and ignorance regarding the effect this has on the LEP population. This paper discusses the background of discharge instructions, reasons for development, the price LEP patients pay when we fail to provide care in their primary language, and possible reasons why we fail to provide that care. / Urban Bioethics

This human factors research demonstrated the importance of instruction design on assembly performance and self-efficacy in young children. The mixed-method usability study evaluated the effect of gender, age, toy, and experience on assembly performance, frequency and duration of instruction looks, subjective evaluations, and usability problems. A total of twenty-four boys and girls, six- and nine-year-olds, assembled K'NEX, LEGO, BIONICLE, and Lincoln Log toys using the accompanying pictorial assembly instructions. Other research objectives included recommending key usability measures for instruction designers, developing a model of assembly self-efficacy, and evaluating traditional usability methods for use with children. Not surprisingly, quantitative results revealed that the older children assembled the toys more quickly and accurately with fewer usability problems. Six-year-old girls had the highest rate of mistakes. The nine-year-olds required fewer instruction looks of shorter duration than the six-year-olds. With few exceptions, toy comparisons were similar across subjective and objective measures. Thirty-two instruction design usability problems were described and illustrated and resulted in twenty-seven design recommendations. For example, more than half of the children omitted components added to the main assembly in the presence of a subassembly construction suggesting that the subassembly should be in a separate frame. Principal components analysis of all quantitative measures revealed four key components for the usability testing of pictorial assembly instructions: performance, satisfaction, difficulty, and previous experience. A qualitative analysis of the think-aloud data and observations, using Grounded Theory, produced a model of assembly self-efficacy from child users’ psychosocial and cognitive perspectives that affirmed the importance of user-centered instruction design. Girls exhibited lower self-efficacy and a greater tendency toward internal attributions, which was exacerbated by assembly of a boy-oriented toy. Six-year-old children were more affected by excess extraneous cognitive load and inaccurate information, such as color mismatches between the instructions and object. Adaptations of traditional usability methods and instruments were effective with children. They included video training for thinking aloud, visual-analog rating scales, and pictorial ranking instruments. A small head-mounted camera provided an economic means for gathering gross instruction encoding times and for better understanding the user's perspective. / Ph. D.

The Saudi Arabia Ministry of Education (MoE) has implemented new policies and reform programs for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers to integrate technology in their classrooms. Creating a set of guidelines may provide a solution to guide EFL teachers through implementing technology to teach EFL skills in their classroom. Using a developmental study, comprised of three phases (analysis, design and development, and evaluation and revision), research-based instructional strategies were operationalized using a set of guidelines instruction to guide EFL teachers to integrate technology in their EFL classroom. Using a comprehensive literature review and evaluation by expert reviewers and users, guidelines were designed and evaluated to provide EFL teachers with instructional strategies and supporting technology solutions to implement in their EFL classrooms. This study describes the development process of the guidelines, the expert review and users, and the validation and usability of the final product in the Saudi context. / PHD / The Saudi Arabia Ministry of Education (MoE) has implemented new policies and reform programs for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers to integrate technology in their classrooms. Creating a set of guidelines may provide a solution to guide EFL teachers through using technology to teach EFL skills in their classroom. Using a developmental study, consisted of three phases (analysis, design and development, and evaluation and revision), guidelines instruction was developed to guide EFL teachers in using technology in their EFL classroom. Using a comprehensive literature review and evaluation by expert reviewers and users, guidelines were designed and evaluated to provide EFL teachers with instructional strategies and supporting technology solutions to use in their EFL classrooms. This study describes the development process of the guidelines, the expert review and users, and the validation and usability of the final product in the Saudi context.

This thesis examines the context and causes of signal reform in the British Royal Navy during the American War of Independence. It argues that changes in the ethos of the officer corps before and during the American War of Independence led to a complex period of signal reform. The original system was tied to the General Printed Sailing and Fighting Instructions, more often referred to as the Fighting Instructions. For around a century (ca. 1690 to ca. 1790), the Royal Navy utilized the Fighting Instructions as its main system of communication. During the American War for Independence, however, some sea officers began to question the system and devise new methods of signaling. This change was brought on by changes within the officer corps. Among the changes were trends of centralization and the influence of Enlightenment ideals. Both of these shifts helped to inspire the signal reformers, while also creating the environment to sustain signal reforms. This thesis examines the signal reforms of the three principal signal reformers of the war: Richard Howe, Richard Kempenfelt, and George Rodney. / Master of Arts / This thesis examines the context and causes of signal reform in the British Royal Navy during the American War of Independence. It argues that changes in the ethos of the officer corps before and during the American War of Independence led to a complex period of signal reform. For nearly one hundred years, the navy utilized the same system of signaling to communicate between ships: the General Printed Sailing and Fighting Instructions, more commonly known as the Fighting Instructions. During the American War of Independence, some British sea officers began to question that system and propose alternate systems of their own design. Influenced by their lengthy naval experience, shifts in trends of centralization, and the influence of Enlightenment ideals, officers like Richard Howe, Richard Kempenfelt, and George Rodney experimented with new methods of signaling.

This is a bachelor thesis in information design with a focus on informative illustration at Mälardalen University. The thesis was carried out in collaboration with Klättercentret Västerås and investigates how to visualize human movements in static media to facilitate the understanding of bouldering techniques for beginners. By applying various visualization techniques, the thesis aims to develop effective instructional materials that enable users to understand and perform complex movements without seeing any actual movement. The methods included the use of think-aloud protocol and semi-structured interviews to collect data from test subjects. Two main visualization techniques were tested: multiple static-simultaneous pictures and overlapping multiples. In addition to these, movement indicating arrows and movement lines were also used as clarifying additions. The test subjects studied the instructions and then performed the movements on a climbing wall. Their performance and feedback were documented and analyzed to assess the comprehensibility and usability of the material. The instructional material was developed in an iterative process, in which the feedback and performance from each user test was used to develop and refine the material. The results show that multiple static-simultaneous pictures were most effective in conveying complex movements. Users found these visualizations easier to understand and follow compared to overlapping multiples. The results also indicate that visualizations with clear visual cues, such as arrows and color markings, reduced cognitive load and facilitated comprehension. / Detta är ett examensarbete i informationsdesign med inriktningen informativ illustration vid Mälardalens universitet. Examensarbetet genomfördes i samarbete med Klättercentret Västerås och undersöker hur man kan visualisera mänskliga rörelser i statiska medier för att underlätta förståelsen av boulderingstekniker för nybörjare. Genom att tillämpa olika visualiseringstekniker syftar arbetet till att utveckla effektiva instruktionsmaterial som gör det möjligt för användare att förstå och utföra komplexa rörelser utan att se några faktiska rörelser. Metoderna inkluderade användningen av think-aloud protokoll och semistrukturerade intervjuer för att samla in data från testpersoner. Två huvudsakliga visualiseringstekniker testades: flera seriellt bildberättande och överlappande multiplar (overlapping multiples). Utöver dessa användes även rörelseindikerande pilar och rörelselinjer som förtydligande tillägg. Testpersonerna studerade instruktionerna och utförde sedan rörelserna på en klättervägg. Deras prestationer och feedback dokumenterades och analyserades för att bedöma materialets begriplighet och användbarhet. Instruktionsmaterialet utvecklades i en iterativ process, där feedback och prestanda från varje användartest användes för att utveckla och förfina materialet. Resultaten visar att seriellt bildberättande var mest effektivt för att förmedla komplexa rörelser. Testpersonerna ansåg att dessa visualiseringar var lättare att förstå och följa jämfört med överlappande multiplar. Resultaten tyder också på att visualiseringar med tydliga visuella signaler, såsom pilar och färgmarkeringar, minskade kognitiv belastning och underlättade förståelsen.

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In the sphere of labour and employment, "prerogative" is usually taken to refer to the "right to manage" an organisation. The right can be divided into those decisions which relate to the utilisation of the human resources of the organisation and decisions of an "economic" or "business" nature. This thesis focuses on the first category of decisionmaking. It is generally accepted by employers and trade unions that employers have the right to manage employees. The legal basis for this right is to be found in the contract of employment which has as one of its elements the subordination of the employee to the authority of the employer. This element affords the employer the legal right to give instructions and creates the legal duty for the employee to obey these instructions. Employers' right to manage is, however, neither fixed nor static. The main purpose of this thesis is to determine the extent of employers' right to manage employees. This is done by examining the restrictions imposed by the law {ie common law and legislation) and collective bargaining. The examination is accordingly focussed on what is Jett of employer prerogative. A number of conclusions are drawn from the examination. One of the most important conclusions reached is that, although most of an employer's common law decisionmaking powers have been statutorily regulated, none have been rescinded. The employer has accordingly retained its decision-making power, albeit in a more restricted or limited form. This makes further restriction of its decision-making power through contractual or statutory provisions or collective bargaining possible. It, however, also makes the lessening or even the total removal of these restrictions through future statutory provisions or collective bargaining possible. / Law / LL.D.

L’étude du pouvoir hiérarchique impose une approche basée sur sa fonction, en ce qu’elle est profondément liée à la théorie de la personnalité publique et à l’aménagement des compétences au sein des structures administratives. Ce préambule permet d’en identifier les caractères particuliers et de le définir comme un moyen d’unification de volonté au sein des personnes publiques. D’un point de vue théorique, il est un pouvoir inconditionné affectant l’ensemble de l’activité de subordonnés, qu’elle se traduise par la réalisation d’actes juridiques ou d’opérations matérielles. À travers des prérogatives d’instruction, de correction et de substitution, qui chacune en constitue un aspect particulier, il permet aux supérieurs de commander et contrôler. Cependant, et au-delà de ces instruments, le pouvoir hiérarchique conserve la réelle unité que lui donne sa fonction particulière. Cela ne signifie pas qu’il ne soit pas sujet à variation selon les habilitations respectives du supérieur et du subordonné, par exemple en conséquence de procédés de déconcentration ou de délégation qui peuvent venir limiter certaines de ses manifestations. Inversement, c’est parfois l’altération du pouvoir hiérarchique lui-même qui révèle un aménagement particulier de l’exercice des compétences. De plus, il faut envisager le pouvoir hiérarchique au-delà de la relation entre supérieur et subordonné. Si celle-ci présente des spécificités et s’adjoint des garanties non hiérarchiques nécessaires à son efficacité, le pouvoir hiérarchique joue également un rôle, en droit comme en fait, à l’égard des administrés, ce qui relativise la distinction parfois faite entre légalité intérieure et légalité générale. / The study of hierarchical power imposes a function-based approach, as it is deeply linked to the theory of public personality and to the arrangement of habilitations or jurisdictions in administrative structures. This preamble allows to identity its proper characteristics and to define it as a mean to unify the will of public persons. On a theoretical point of view, it is an unconditioned power concerning the whole activity of subordinates, as they can edict legal acts or realise physical operations. Through the diverse privileges of instruction, correction and substitution, each of which constitutes a particular aspect, it allows superiors to command and control. However and beyond these instruments, hierarchical power has a true unity which results of its particular function. This doesn’t implies that it is not subject to variation by virtue of respective empowerment of superior and subordinate members of the Administration, for example as a consequence of devolution or delegation of power that can modify some of its expressions. Contrariwise, it is sometimes the alteration of hierarchical power that reveals a particular arrangement of habilitations. Moreover, consideration should be given to hierarchical power beyond the relationship between superior and subordinate. As it shows specificities and needs the adjunction of non hierarchical powers that guarantees its effectiveness, hierarchical power also plays a role, in law and in fact, in respect of the governed or constituents, which puts the distinction sometimes made between internal and external law into perspective.

In the sphere of labour and employment, "prerogative" is usually taken to refer to the "right to manage" an organisation. The right can be divided into those decisions which relate to the utilisation of the human resources of the organisation and decisions of an "economic" or "business" nature. This thesis focuses on the first category of decisionmaking. It is generally accepted by employers and trade unions that employers have the right to manage employees. The legal basis for this right is to be found in the contract of employment which has as one of its elements the subordination of the employee to the authority of the employer. This element affords the employer the legal right to give instructions and creates the legal duty for the employee to obey these instructions. Employers' right to manage is, however, neither fixed nor static. The main purpose of this thesis is to determine the extent of employers' right to manage employees. This is done by examining the restrictions imposed by the law {ie common law and legislation) and collective bargaining. The examination is accordingly focussed on what is Jett of employer prerogative. A number of conclusions are drawn from the examination. One of the most important conclusions reached is that, although most of an employer's common law decisionmaking powers have been statutorily regulated, none have been rescinded. The employer has accordingly retained its decision-making power, albeit in a more restricted or limited form. This makes further restriction of its decision-making power through contractual or statutory provisions or collective bargaining possible. It, however, also makes the lessening or even the total removal of these restrictions through future statutory provisions or collective bargaining possible. / Law / LL.D.