A visualização de conjuntos de dados volumétricos é comum em diversas áreas de aplicação e há já alguns anos os diversos aspectos envolvidos nessas técnicas vêm sendo pesquisados. No entanto, apesar dos avanços das técnicas de visualização de volumes, a interação com grandes volumes de dados ainda apresenta desafios devido a questões de percepção (ou isolamento) de estruturas internas e desempenho computacional. O suporte do hardware gráfico para visualização baseada em texturas permite o desenvolvimento de técnicas eficientes de rendering que podem ser combinadas com ferramentas de recorte interativas para possibilitar a inspeção de conjuntos de dados tridimensionais. Muitos estudos abordam a otimização do desempenho de ferramentas de recorte, mas muito poucos tratam das metáforas de interação utilizadas por essas ferramentas. O objetivo deste trabalho é desenvolver ferramentas interativas, intuitivas e fáceis de usar para o recorte de imagens volumétricas. Inicialmente, é apresentado um estudo sobre as principais técnicas de visualização direta de volumes e como é feita a exploração desses volumes utilizando-se recorte volumétrico. Nesse estudo é identificada a solução que melhor se enquadra no presente trabalho para garantir a interatividade necessária. Após, são apresentadas diversas técnicas de interação existentes, suas metáforas e taxonomias, para determinar as possíveis técnicas de interação mais fáceis de serem utilizadas por ferramentas de recorte. A partir desse embasamento, este trabalho apresenta o desenvolvimento de três ferramentas de recorte genéricas implementadas usando-se duas metáforas de interação distintas que são freqüentemente utilizadas por usuários de aplicativos 3D: apontador virtual e mão virtual. A taxa de interação dessas ferramentas é obtida através de programas de fragmentos especiais executados diretamente no hardware gráfico. Estes programas especificam regiões dentro do volume a serem descartadas durante o rendering, com base em predicados geométricos. Primeiramente, o desempenho, precisão e preferência (por parte dos usuários) das ferramentas de recorte volumétrico são avaliados para comparar as metáforas de interação empregadas. Após, é avaliada a interação utilizando-se diferentes dispositivos de entrada para a manipulação do volume e ferramentas. A utilização das duas mãos ao mesmo tempo para essa manipulação também é testada. Os resultados destes experimentos de avaliação são apresentados e discutidos. / Visualization of volumetric datasets is common in many fields and has been an active area of research in the past two decades. In spite of developments in volume visualization techniques, interacting with large datasets still demands research efforts due to perceptual and performance issues. The support of graphics hardware for texture-based visualization allows efficient implementation of rendering techniques that can be combined with interactive sculpting tools to enable interactive inspection of 3D datasets. Many studies regarding performance optimization of sculpting tools have been reported, but very few are concerned with the interaction techniques employed. The purpose of this work is the development of interactive, intuitive, and easy-to-use sculpting tools. Initially, a review of the main techniques for direct volume visualization and sculpting is presented. The best solution that guarantees the required interaction is highlighted. Afterwards, in order to identify the most user-friendly interaction technique for volume sculpting, several interaction techniques, metaphors and taxonomies are presented. Based on that, this work presents the development of three generic sculpting tools implemented using two different interaction metaphors, which are often used by users of 3D applications: virtual pointer and virtual hand. Interactive rates for these sculpting tools are obtained by running special fragment programs on the graphics hardware which specify regions within the volume to be discarded from rendering based on geometric predicates. After development, the performance, precision and user preference of the sculpting tools were evaluated to compare the interaction metaphors. Afterward, the tools were evaluated by comparing the use of a 3D mouse against a conventional wheel mouse for guiding volume and tools manipulation. Two-handed input was also tested with both types of mouse. The results from the evaluation experiments are presented and discussed.

A visualização de conjuntos de dados volumétricos é comum em diversas áreas de aplicação e há já alguns anos os diversos aspectos envolvidos nessas técnicas vêm sendo pesquisados. No entanto, apesar dos avanços das técnicas de visualização de volumes, a interação com grandes volumes de dados ainda apresenta desafios devido a questões de percepção (ou isolamento) de estruturas internas e desempenho computacional. O suporte do hardware gráfico para visualização baseada em texturas permite o desenvolvimento de técnicas eficientes de rendering que podem ser combinadas com ferramentas de recorte interativas para possibilitar a inspeção de conjuntos de dados tridimensionais. Muitos estudos abordam a otimização do desempenho de ferramentas de recorte, mas muito poucos tratam das metáforas de interação utilizadas por essas ferramentas. O objetivo deste trabalho é desenvolver ferramentas interativas, intuitivas e fáceis de usar para o recorte de imagens volumétricas. Inicialmente, é apresentado um estudo sobre as principais técnicas de visualização direta de volumes e como é feita a exploração desses volumes utilizando-se recorte volumétrico. Nesse estudo é identificada a solução que melhor se enquadra no presente trabalho para garantir a interatividade necessária. Após, são apresentadas diversas técnicas de interação existentes, suas metáforas e taxonomias, para determinar as possíveis técnicas de interação mais fáceis de serem utilizadas por ferramentas de recorte. A partir desse embasamento, este trabalho apresenta o desenvolvimento de três ferramentas de recorte genéricas implementadas usando-se duas metáforas de interação distintas que são freqüentemente utilizadas por usuários de aplicativos 3D: apontador virtual e mão virtual. A taxa de interação dessas ferramentas é obtida através de programas de fragmentos especiais executados diretamente no hardware gráfico. Estes programas especificam regiões dentro do volume a serem descartadas durante o rendering, com base em predicados geométricos. Primeiramente, o desempenho, precisão e preferência (por parte dos usuários) das ferramentas de recorte volumétrico são avaliados para comparar as metáforas de interação empregadas. Após, é avaliada a interação utilizando-se diferentes dispositivos de entrada para a manipulação do volume e ferramentas. A utilização das duas mãos ao mesmo tempo para essa manipulação também é testada. Os resultados destes experimentos de avaliação são apresentados e discutidos. / Visualization of volumetric datasets is common in many fields and has been an active area of research in the past two decades. In spite of developments in volume visualization techniques, interacting with large datasets still demands research efforts due to perceptual and performance issues. The support of graphics hardware for texture-based visualization allows efficient implementation of rendering techniques that can be combined with interactive sculpting tools to enable interactive inspection of 3D datasets. Many studies regarding performance optimization of sculpting tools have been reported, but very few are concerned with the interaction techniques employed. The purpose of this work is the development of interactive, intuitive, and easy-to-use sculpting tools. Initially, a review of the main techniques for direct volume visualization and sculpting is presented. The best solution that guarantees the required interaction is highlighted. Afterwards, in order to identify the most user-friendly interaction technique for volume sculpting, several interaction techniques, metaphors and taxonomies are presented. Based on that, this work presents the development of three generic sculpting tools implemented using two different interaction metaphors, which are often used by users of 3D applications: virtual pointer and virtual hand. Interactive rates for these sculpting tools are obtained by running special fragment programs on the graphics hardware which specify regions within the volume to be discarded from rendering based on geometric predicates. After development, the performance, precision and user preference of the sculpting tools were evaluated to compare the interaction metaphors. Afterward, the tools were evaluated by comparing the use of a 3D mouse against a conventional wheel mouse for guiding volume and tools manipulation. Two-handed input was also tested with both types of mouse. The results from the evaluation experiments are presented and discussed.

Les dispositifs mobiles sont aujourd’hui omniprésents dans notre quotidien. Leurs évolutions technologiques ainsi que les moyens de communication toujours plus rapides font que les utilisateurs manipulent toujours plus d’informations sur leurs dispositifs mobiles, modifiant ainsi l’usage qu’ils en font, et remplaçant petit à petit les ordinateurs de bureau. Cependant les dispositifs mobiles ne s’utilisent pas de la même manière que les ordinateurs de bureau et doivent faire face à des contraintes qui leur sont propres. En particulier, les écrans de taille réduite ne permettent pas d’afficher autant d’information que sur l’écran d’un ordinateur de bureau. De plus, ces écrans, tactiles pour la plupart, sont utilisés à la fois comme périphérique d’entrée et de sortie, entraînant ainsi des problèmes d’occultation d’une partie de l’écran lors de l’interaction. Ces constats et limitations posent ainsi le problème de la visualisation interactive de grandes quantités d’information sur dispositifs mobiles.Le problème s’articule donc selon deux axes fortement liés : d’une part la visualisation d’information et d’autre part l’interaction sur dispositifs mobiles. Pour le premier axe, nous nous sommes intéressés aux techniques de visualisation permettant de visualiser à la fois une vue globale de l’espace d’information et une sous-partie détaillée de celui-ci. En effet, visualiser uniquement une sous-partie de l’espace d’information rend sa compréhension difficile du fait du manque de contexte. A l’inverse, visualiser l’espace d’information complet à l’écran le rend illisible.Pour le second axe, nous nous sommes interessés aux techniques d’interaction pour naviguer dans l’espace d’information. En effet, la variété des capteurs disponibles aujourd’hui dans les dispositifs mobiles définit un large espace de possibilités en termes de modalités d’interaction.Nos travaux apportent deux types de contribution : conceptuelles et pratiques. Nous présentons tout d’abord un espace de conception des modalités de navigation en l’instanciant au cas des dispositifs mobiles : cet espace permet de décrire, comparer et concevoir des modalités d’interaction pour la tâche de navigation. Nous présentons ensuite un modèle conceptuel de navigation multimodale permettant de naviguer dans un espace d’information multi-échelles.Basé sur un état de l’art des techniques de visualisation sur dispositifs mobiles, nous avons conçu et évalué expérimentalement une technique de visualisation bifocale. Enfin, en nous reposant sur deux espaces conceptuels et l’état de l’art des modalités d’interaction sur dispositifs mobiles, nous proposons plusieurs techniques d’interaction multimodale conçues et évaluées expérimentalement pour naviguer dans un espace d’information multi-échelles. / Mobile devices are now ubiquitous in everyday computing. Technological advances and increasing mobile network performance allow users to manipulate more and more information on their mobile devices, changing the use they make of these types of devices, which are gradually replacing desktop computers. However mobile devices are not used in the same way as desktops and face specific constraints. In particular, smaller screens fail to display as much information as a computer screen. In addition, these screens, mostly tactile, are used as both input and output devices, leading to occlusion of a portion of the screen during touch interaction. These findings and limitations give rise to the problem of interactive visualization of large amounts of information on mobile devices.We addressed this problem by considering two related research axes: on the one hand information visualization and on the other hand interaction on mobile devices.For the first axis, we focused on visualization techniques that provide an overview of the information space and a detailed subset of it. Indeed, only one view of a subset of the information space makes it difficult to understand it because of the lack of context. Conversely, visualizing the complete information space on the screen of a mobile device makes it unreadable.For the second axis, we studied interaction techniques for navigating an information space. Facing the variety of sensors available in todays mobile devices, there is a vast set of possibilities in terms of interaction modalities.We provide two types of contribution: conceptual and practical.First we present a design space of navigation techniques on mobile devices: this design space enables us to describe, compare and design interaction modalities for the task of navigation in an information space. Second we propose a conceptual model of multimodal navigation for navigating a multiscale information space.Based on a state of the art of visualization techniques on mobile devices, we designed, developed and experimentally tested a bifocal view on a mobile device. By relying on our design space and by operationalizing our conceptual model of navigation, we designed developed and experimentally compared several multimodal interaction techniques for navigating a multiscale information space.

Human Computer Interaction (HCI) is a fascinating research field because of its multidisciplinary nature, combining such diverse research domains as design, human factors and computer science as well as a variety of methods including empirical and theoretical research. HCI is also fascinating because it is still young and so much is left to discover, invent and understand. The evolution of computers, and more generally of interactive systems, is not frozen, and so are the ways in which we interact with them. From desktop computers, to mobile devices, to large displays or multi-surface environments, technology extends the possibles, needs initiate technologies, and HCI is thus a constantly moving field. The variety of challenges to address, as well as their underlying combinations of sub-domains (design, computer science, experimental psychology, sociology, etc.), imply that we should also adapt, question and sometimes reinvent our research methods and processes, pushing the limits of HCI research further. Since I entered the field 12 years ago, my research activities have essentially revolved around two main themes: the design, implementation and evaluation of novel interaction techniques (on desktop computers, mobile devices and multi- surface environments) and the engineering of interactive systems (models and toolkits for advanced input and interaction). Over time, I realized that I had entered a loop between these two concerns, going back and forth between design- ing and evaluating new interaction techniques, and defining and implementing new software architectures or toolkits. I observed that they strongly influence each other: The design of interaction techniques informs on the capabilities and limitations of the platform and the software being used, and new architectures and software tools open the way to new designs and possibilities. Through the discussion of several of my research contributions in these fields, this document investigates how interaction design challenges technology, and how technology - or engineering of interactive systems - could support and unleash interaction design. These observations will lead to a first definition of the "Designeering Interaction" conceptual framework that encompasses the specificities of these two fields and builds a bridge between them, paving the way to new research perspectives. In particular, I will discuss which types of tools, from the system level to the end user, should be designed, implemented and studied in order to better support interaction design along the evolution of interactive systems. At a more general level, Designeering Interaction is also a contribution that, I hope, will help better "understand how HCI works with technology".

Many types of multi-display environments (MDEs) are emerging that allow users to better interact with computers. In these environments, being able to move visual objects (such as window icons or the cursor) from one display to another is a fundamental activity. This dissertation focuses on understanding how human performance of cross-display actions is affected by the design of cross-display object movement interaction techniques. Three main aspects of cross-display actions are studied: how displays are referred to by the system and the users, how spatial actions are planned, and how actions are executed. Each of these three aspects is analyzed through laboratory experiments that provide empirical evidence on how different characteristics of interaction techniques affect performance. The results further our understanding of cross-display interaction and can be used by designers of new MDEs to create more efficient multi-display interfaces.

De nombreux travaux ont montré que, à l’origine des limitations de l’interaction bureautique, il y a un manque à la fois d’espace moteur et d’espace visuel.Cette thèse explore des moyens pour optimiser l’usage de ces espaces.D’une part, à partir du constat que l’on contrôle la position et l’orientation d’un objet par un geste naturel, cette thèse étudie les bénéfices que peut offrir une souris dotée d’un capteur de rotation. Cette < souris rotative > permet à l’utilisateur de maîtriser avec aisance trois variables continues d’une tâche informatique. Un état de l’art présente des aspects perceptifs et moteurs des actions en question et les particularités ergonomiques et techniques d’un tel dispositif. Deux techniques d’interaction - visant à faciliter des tâches métier récurrentes - sont proposées :le réglage < quasi-intégral > et la < palette satellitaire >. Par ailleurs, une évaluation expérimentale compare la performance d’une souris rotative avec celle d’une souris traditionnelle.D’autre part, ce travail se penche sur les questions de la visualisation de documents dans le contexte des bibliothèques numériques. D’abord, il examine l’apport et la faisabilité technique de l’utilisation d’un dispositif d’affichage immersif pour la navigation dans un catalogue de titres virtuel. Puis, afin de faciliter l’inspection massive d’un lot de pages numérisées, il avance des techniques de visualisation zoomables et multi-focales. Ces dernières permettent, dans une recherche d’anomalies, de saisir vite les caractéristiques visuelles de quelques centaines de pages. Et cela grâce à un va-et-vient entre la vue d’ensemble et la navigation panoramique des détails. / Past research has suggested that among the reasons for the limitations of present desktop interaction style is the lack of both motor and visual space. The goal ofthis thesis is to optimize the use of such spaces. Based on the fact that one can control an object’s position and orientation through a natural movement, the first main contributioin of this thesis is to explorethe advantages of enhancing the sensing of the standard mouse througha rotation sensor. This < rotary mouse > allows one to easily control three continuous variables of a computer task. A survey presents the perceptual and motorissues of some rotary manipulations and also the technical and ergonomic requirements of such device. Two interaction techniques, aimed to simplify repetitive tasks, are proposed : the < nearly-integral selection > and the < satellite palette >.Furthermore, an experimental evaluation compares the performance of the rotarymouse with that of a standard one. The other main contribution of this work is to investigate document visualization issues in the context of digital libraries. First, it analyses the advantages and the technical feasibility of integrating an immersive display to an interface aimed to support navigation in a virtual catalog. Second, in order to inspect the quality of a batch of digitized pages, it explores some zoomable and multi-focal visualization techniques. The overview and the panoramic detail browsing enabled by such techniques try to help users, which have to identify the flaws resulted from the digitization process, to quickly grasp the visual characteristics of a large set of pages.

As interactive systems are now used to perform a variety of complex tasks, users need systems that are at the same time expressive, efficient and usable. Although simple interactive systems can be easily usable, interaction designers often consider that only expert practitioners can benefit from the expressiveness of more complex systems. Our approach, inspired by studies in phenomenology and psychology, underscores that non-experts have sizeable knowledge and advanced skills related to various expert activities having a social dimension -such as artistic activities-, which they gain implicitly through their engagement as perceivers. For example, we identify various music-related skills mastered by non-musicians, which they gain when listening to music or attending performances. We have two main arguments. First, interaction designers can reuse such implicit knowledge and skills to design interaction techniques that are both expressive and usable by novice users. Second, as expert artifacts and expert learning methods have evolved over time and have shown efficient to overcome the complexity of expert activities, they can be used as a source of inspiration to make expressive systems more easily usable by novice users. We provide a design framework for studying the usability and expressiveness of interaction techniques as two new aspects of the user experience, and explore this framework with three projects. In the first project we study the use of rhythmic patterns as an input method, and show that novice users are able to reproduce and memorize large vocabularies of patterns. This is made possible by the natural abilities of non-musicians to perceive, reproduce and make sense of rhythmic structures. We define a method to create expressive vocabularies of patterns, and show that novice users are able to efficiently use them as command triggers. In the second project, we study the design and learning of chording gestures on multitouch screens. We introduce design guidelines to create expressive chord vocabularies taking the mechanical constraints and the degrees of freedom of the human hand into account. We evaluate the usability of such gestures in an experiment and we present an adapted learning method inspired by the teaching of chords in music. We show that novice users are able to reproduce and memorize our vocabularies of chording gestures, while our learning method can improve long-term memorization. The final project focuses on music software used for live performances and proposes a framework for designing "instrumental" software allowing expert musical playing and having its elementary functionalities accessible to novices, as it is the case with acoustic instruments (for example, one can easily play a few chords on a piano without practice). We define a design framework inspired by a functional decomposition of acoustic instruments and present an adapted software architecture, both aiming to ease the design of such software and to make it match with instrument-making. These projects show that, in these cases: (i) the implicit knowledge novices have about some expert activities can be reused for interaction; (ii) expert learning methods can inspire ways to make expressive systems more usable novices; (iii) taking expert artifacts as a source of inspiration can help creating usable and expressive interactive systems. In this dissertation, we propose the study of usability as an alternative to the focus on immediacy that characterizes current commercial interactive systems. We also propose methods to benefit from the richness of expert activities and from the implicit knowledge of non-experts to design interactive systems that are at the same time expressive and usable by novice users.

Le domaine de l’informatique 3D est vaste, contenant de nombreuses directions de recherche possible. Une de ces directions est la numérisation d’objetsréels, via des scanners. De nombreux objectifs peuvent requérir cela, de l’affichage et de l’interaction avec le modèle dans un environnement 3D comme un jeu vidéo à l’analyse dudit modèle pour de la rétro-ingénierie, comme l’analyse de l’évolution de l’objet dans le temps pour de la maintenance. Le problème est alors d’être capable de traiter les modèles ainsi acquis. Cette thèse se focalise plus particulièrement sur les modèles de bâtiments acquis à l’aide d’un scanner laser, résultant en un nuage de points 3D. Le processus d’acquisition n’étant pas parfait, le modèle obtenu comporte des défauts comme des trous ou du bruit. Notre première contribution est alors de pouvoir sélectionner une partie de ce nuage de points, dans le but par exemple de cibler des traitements. Le principe est de faire une sélection par étape en créant un volume formé d’une succession de contours de forme libre. Des tests expérimentaux ont montré que cette technique est efficace et préférée par rapport aux deux autres techniques de sélection testées. Notre deuxième contribution est un processus visant à corriger les défauts dus à l’acquisition du modèle. Pour cela, le processus se base sur d’autres sources contenant des informations sur l’objet représenté pour détecter un ensemble de zones contenant des problèmes. Il essaie ensuite autant que possible de prendre automatiquement des décisions pour la correction, mais laisse toujours le choix final à un utilisateur. Les résultats montrent que le modèle obtenu est d’une bien meilleure qualité visuelle. / The computer science field is vast, containing numerous areas of possible research focus. One of those areas is the transposition of real objects in 3D worlds, using scanners. A variety of goals can need such a step, from displaying and interacting with the resulting model in a 3D environment such as a video game to analyzing that model for retro-engineering, such as analyzing the evolution in time of the object for maintenance. The problem then becomes to be capable to treat the models thus acquired. This thesis focuses more particularly on models of building, acquired with a laser scanner, giving a 3D point cloud. The acquisition process being not perfect, the resulting model contains defects such as holes or noise. Our first contribution is then to enable a user to select a part of the cloud, for example to target treatments. The principle is to perform the selection in several steps by creating a volume composed of successive free-formed outlines. Experimental tests showed that this technique is effective and preferred to the two other compared selection techniques. Our second contribution is a process aiming at correcting the defects caused by the acquisition. To that end, the process bases itself on other sources having information on the represented object to detect a set of areas containing problems. It tries then as much as possible to take automatic decisions to correct the problems, but always leaves the final choice to a user. The experiment showed the the resulting model looks much better.

Dans des situations où la perception visuelle est fortement contrainte ou déficiente, il est nécessaire de rendre perceptible l'information dans une modalité non visuelle, tout en prenant en compte des capacités sensorielles et mnésiques humaines. Par exemple, un non-voyant, souhaitant prendre connaissance d'un itinéraire, devra le parcourir de façon non visuelle et le mémoriser. Cependant, outre l'aspect matériel, la mise en œuvre de solutions alternatives (non visuelles) demeure confrontée aux capacités cognitives de l'utilisateur (compréhension, mémorisation, intégration de plusieurs informations, etc.). L'objet de cette thèse est de contribuer à la conception de techniques d'interactions permettant d'optimiser la transmission non visuelle d'informations. A ces fins, j'ai exploré l'apport de la multimodalité comme moyen d'optimisation permettant d'outrepasser les limites de la mémorisation. Je me suis concentré sur l'étude des techniques d'interaction basées sur les modalités auditives et tactiles, en limitant au maximum l'utilisation de la parole, afin de concevoir des techniques pour des environnements différents (flexibilité), d'optimiser l'utilisation de canaux perceptifs (exploitation des propriétés du son dans des messages audio pour transmettre plus d'informations, par exemple), d'éviter de limiter mes techniques par la barrière de la langue ou de sa compréhension et enfin, pour explorer d'autres solutions que la synthèse vocale seule. Les travaux de ma thèse ont mené à la conception, à l'implémentation et à l'évaluation de techniques d'interaction multimodale non visuelle, en réponse à différents contextes, dont, en particulier, ceux de la transmission d'informations de type <valeur>, <position> (couple de coordonnées) et <itinéraire> (séquence de couples direction-distance). Pour parvenir à concevoir mes interactions, j'ai, tout d'abord, effectué une revue de la littérature, afin d'en extraire les principaux facteurs de conception de techniques d'interaction dédiées à la transmission non visuelle d'information. Puis, j'ai organisé ces facteurs sous la forme d'un cadre d'analyse, sur lequel je me suis appuyé pour concevoir chacune de mes techniques. Trois expériences distinctes ont permis d'évaluer l'influence de facteurs de conception sur l'efficacité des interactions et la satisfaction des utilisateurs vis-à-vis des techniques. Je peux, notamment, citer l'implication des utilisateurs (actif ou passif), la présence d'aides explicites", la transmission de plusieurs informations en parallèle et la modalité principale utilisée et, le type de codage dans lequel est encodée l'information. / In situations where the visual perception is strongly constraint or deficient, it is necessary to make perceptible the information with a "not visual form" while taking into account human sensory and mnesic capacities. For example, a blind person wishing to acquaint an itinerary must read it under a non visual form and memorize it. However, besides the material aspect, the implementation of alternatives (non-visual) still faces to the cognitive abilities of the user (comprehension, memorization, integration of various information, etc.). The purpose of this thesis is to contribute to the design of interaction techniques allowing to optimize the transmission not visual of the information. For these purposes, I explored the feature of multimodality as a means of optimization, allowing of exceeding the memorization limits. I focused on the study of interaction techniques based on auditory and tactile modalities and by minimizing the use of the speech, in order to develop techniques for different environments (flexibility), optimize the use of perceptual channels (operating the properties of sound in audio messages to transmit more information, for example), avoid limiting my techniques by the language barrier or understanding and finally, to explore alternatives to the synthesised voice alone. The works of my thesis led to the design, to the implementation and to the evaluation of interaction techniques "non-visual" and "multiform", in answer to different contexts, whom in particular those of the information transmission of type <value>, <position> (pair of coordinates) and <itinerary> (sequence of couples direction-distance). To achieve design my interactions, I have made a review of literature in order to extract the main factors of design of interaction techniques dedicated to the transmission not visual of the information. Then, I have organized these factors in an analytical framework on which I have relied to design each of my techniques. Three separate experiments were led to evaluate the influence of design factors on the effectiveness of interactions and satisfaction towards users of technology. I can give some of them, the involvement of users (active or passive), the presence of explicit help, the transmission of several information in parallel, the main modality used and the type of coding in which is encoded the information.

近年來多軸空拍機快速發展與普及，可預見其未來將成為新一代的輔助攝影工具。空拍機打破距離、角度的限制，讓時下流行的自拍（Selfie）照片相較於以往以手臂或自拍棒輔助的方式，拍出更具特色及多樣性的構圖。然而當前空拍機操作方式複雜，使用者需花費一定的練習時間才能熟練地控制空拍機至預定位置進行拍攝。 本研究針對空拍機的使用情境進行觀察，歸納傳統操作方式造成的問題，再依不同互動控制方法討論過往研究提出的解決方法之優勢與限制，並依據自拍行為之心智模型及過往研究經驗，設計兩階段互動流程：相機定位階段（Positioning）及鏡頭構圖階段（Framing），並在各階段中分別提出直接指向（Direct Pointing）、移動微調（Fine Tuning）及構圖調整（Framing）三種有別於傳統類比搖桿操控之互動模式。 本研究另設計一俱觸覺控制回饋、可單手操作之實體自拍遙控器，搭配前述互動設計實作兼具自動化移動及以使用者為中心進行操作之空拍機自拍互動控制系統原型Skyfie，並於戶外環境設計實驗場域進行使用者測試，測試使用者指揮空拍機至指定位置拍照之操作，評估互動流程中各操作方法之優劣。測試結果顯示Skyfie 互動控制系統相較於傳統的類比搖桿操控方式更易於學習及使用，且符合使用者對空間的認知，並依照回饋意見進行互動模式修正，以達成對空拍機初學者而言也簡單易學的互動操作方式。 / As personal drones become more popular, we can envision a future where flying selfie bots are always with us. Drones break the limits of distance and angle, providing more diversified composition than taking selfie with arms or a selfie stick. However, users have to be very skillful to pilot the drone and are not easy to take aerial selfies by state-of-the-art methods. Based on user observation and the mindset of selfie taking, we summarize the problems caused by the traditional control methods and generalize the interaction flow of selfie taking into two stages: Positioning and Framing stage. In each stage, we present new interaction techniques including a direct pointing technique, fine-tuning technique, and a touch manipulation for framing. We also present a selfie remote controller designed for single-hand operation to collocates with the interaction techniques, and implement a proof-of-concept Skyfie system for an outdoor user testing. The result shows users felt intuitive and expressed enthusiasm to take aerial selfies with our techniques. Finally, we discuss the insights from the evaluation and conclude with future directions.