Research in corrective feedback (CF) has developed over thirty years; however, little is known about how metalinguistic corrective feedback (MCF) assists the development of procedural knowledge. This quasi-experimental study sought to evaluate and compare the roles of oral MCF in proceduralizing English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ declarative knowledge of gender referents and morphosyntactical structure—third person singular -s. Sixty college EFL learners participated in the study. They were randomly assigned to the experimental group and the control group. All learners participated in 14 communicative form-focused activities that elicited the use of gender referents and third person singular morpheme -s in regular classes over 14 weeks. The experimental group received MCF on errors in use of the target structures. The control group received no MCF in use of the target structures. Pretests, posttests, and long delayed posttests administered 20 weeks after the instructional treatment assessed the participants’ declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge of both target structures. The metalinguistic knowledge test was employed to measure declarative knowledge. The elicited oral imitation test was adopted to measure procedural knowledge. Repeated measures ANOVA results indicated that the MCF group significantly increased their procedural knowledge of both target structures. Cohen’s effect size d revealed that MCF exerted a bigger effect on proceduralizing EFL learners’ knowledge on third person singular morpheme –s than on gender referents. These results also demonstrated a relationship between the efficacy of oral MCF and the target structures as well as the interactional effect of test formats tapping into declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge. These findings shed light on the learnability of difficult structures through MCF and the necessity to employ metalanguage in EFL classrooms.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / A pesquisa aqui descrita à produto de uma empreitada que concatena trÃs grandes Ãreas dentro dos estudos em LinguÃstica: Fraseologia, CompetÃncia Comunicativa e InterlÃngua. Tendo em vista que as unidades fraseolÃgicas sÃo itens lexicais de difÃcil aquisiÃÃo em contexto de segunda lÃngua, adotamos as colocaÃÃes como objeto de estudo por serem altamente produtivas e recorrentes na produÃÃo oral e escrita de falantes nativos. Intencionamos averiguar como os aprendizes de PortuguÃs como LÃngua adicional utilizam as colocaÃÃes em textos escritos e de que forma esse uso delata o que decidimos chamar de CompetÃncia Colocacional. Optamos por trabalhar com sujeitos norte-americanos pertencentes ao programa FLTA, ligado à ComissÃo Fulbright, que promoveram a lÃngua inglesa no Brasil por nove meses no perÃodo de 2015. Os sujeitos que tiveram interesse em participar desta pesquisa foram agrupados conforme nÃvel de proficiÃncia e escreveram textos, em lÃngua portuguesa, cujo tema versava sobre suas impressÃes sobre a cultura brasileira. Depois de escritos, os textos foram analisados e as colocaÃÃes categorizadas de acordo com a equivalÃncia existente entre lÃngua alvo/materna e conforme suas estruturas morfossintÃticas. ApÃs cruzarmos os dados, encontramos que o sistema linguÃstico do nÃvel de proficiÃncia B1/B2 ainda à dependente da lÃngua materna, apresentando colocaÃÃes de âEquivalÃncia Totalâ em todos os tipos de estruturas morfossintÃticas. A anÃlise do grupo de nÃvel de proficiÃncia C1/C2 mostrou que este conhece e utiliza uma quantidade maior de tipos de estruturas, embora produzindo colocaÃÃes pautadas em uma relaÃÃo direta com a lÃngua materna. AlÃm disso, realizamos uma anÃlise dos erros colocacionais, cujos resultados apontam para o fato de a transferÃncia linguÃstica nÃo se constituir como fator principal para o processo de fossilizaÃÃo e percebeu-se tambÃm que os nÃveis mais avanÃados cometem mais erros colocacionais por ainda estarem testando hipÃteses sobre a lÃngua em aquisiÃÃo. ConcluÃmos lanÃando perspectivas de continuidade e possÃveis contribuiÃÃes que este trabalho oferece para Ãreas como LinguÃstica Aplicada, por exemplo. / The research described here is the product of a work that concatenates three major areas within the studies in Linguistics: Phraseology, Communicative Competence and Interlanguage. Given the fact that phraseological units are lexical items of difficult acquisition in a second language context, we adopted the collocations as an object of study to be highly productive and recurrent in oral and written production of native speakers. We intended to find out how the learners of Portuguese as an additional language use collocations in written texts and how this use betrays what we decided to call collocational competence. We chose to work with American subjects belonging to the FLTA program, linked to the Fulbright Commission, who promoted the English language in Brazil for a nine-month period in 2015. The subjects who were interested in participating in this study were grouped according to the level of proficiency and were asked to write texts in Portuguese, whose theme questionnaire was about their impressions of the Brazilian culture. Once written, the texts were analyzed and the collocations categorized according to the existing equivalence between target / mother language and according to their morphosyntactic structures. After we crossed the data, we found out that the B1 / B2 language system proficiency level is still dependent on the mother tongue, with "Total Equity" collocations presented in all types of morphosyntactic structures. The analysis of the C1 / C2 proficiency level group showed that they know and use a larger number of types of structures, while producing guided collocations in a direct relationship with the mother tongue. In addition, we conducted an analysis of collocational errors, whose results point to the fact that the linguistic transfer does not constitute the main factor to the process of fossilization. Besides, we also realized that the most advanced levels make more collocational errors as they were still testing hypotheses on language acquisition. We concluded by launching perspectives of continuity and possible contributions that this work offers to areas such as Applied Linguistics.

表達感謝是人際關係裡最重要的語言功能之一。能夠在英語的環境裡適當地表達感謝對語言學習者來說是相當重要的語言行為。本研究旨在探討中美文化差異對感謝行為的影響以及中文母語文化對外語學習的影響。受試者分為三組：其中兩組為分別以英語和中文為母語的青少年，另一組為英語程度較佳且學習階段為國中的台灣英語學習者。在挑選受試者時，先讓受試者寫一份閱讀測驗，以區分英語能力的高低。向受試者蒐集感謝行為資料的工具為「言談情境填充問卷」。本研究同時使用量化及質化分析來比較兩組母語受試者的感謝行為表現並進一步檢視台灣英語學習者是否已學會使用英語感謝行為的語用規範。 本研究結果顯示：英語為母語者最常使用直接、明確的感謝策略，而最少使用間接的感謝策略如道歉及不作回應；中文為母語者則使用較多的間接感謝策略。然而，台灣英語學習者經歷語用失敗，並將中文的語用規範移轉到英語感謝行為。此外，教學誘發的失誤以及使用過多文字也導致英語學習者的感謝行為偏離英語語用規範。有鑑於此，本研究建議語言教學者應該幫助英語學習者將注意力放在文化差異對語言表達的影響，以提高他們的語用覺察。 / Thanking is one of the most important language functions in interpersonal relationships. It is also important for language learners to appropriately express gratitude in the target culture. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the expressions of gratitude by native American English speakers (NSE) and native Chinese speakers (NSC) and examine whether Taiwanese EFL adolescents had achieved native-like performance in L2 thanking. The American participants were teenagers in the United States. The EFL learners were given a reading test from the GEPT first in order to distinguish native Chinese speakers from EFL learners. Then, a discourse completion test (DCT) was administered to all three groups: English version for the NSE and EFL learners, and the Chinese version the NSC. The quantitative and qualitative analyses were performed to compare both native groups’ thanking performance and further determine if EFL learners had approximated the pragmatic norms of the target language. The results showed that NSE employed explicit thanking strategies most often, but apology and ‘others’ strategies and opt-out the least often. In contrast, NSC employed indirect thanking strategies such as apology and ‘others’ strategies more frequently than their American counterparts. However, the EFL learners had experienced pragmatic failure, transferring thanking strategies from L1 pragmatic norms to English. In addition, teaching-induced errors and waffle phenomenon were responsible for the learners’ deviations from native English norms. It is suggested that language teachers may help learners develop cultural awareness by drawing their attention to the similarities and differences between thanking behavior in one’s native culture and the target culture.

由語言類型來看，中文常被視為是「主題顯著」的語言，而英文常被視為是「主詞顯著」的語言。本篇論文將從語言轉移的角度，探討台灣的英語學習者學習英文時的中介語言，包括是否有中文主題顯著的轉移現象以及是否有學習英文的主詞顯著結構困難。七十八位就讀台北縣某高職的學生參與此研究，他們因英文程度而分為高、中、低成就三組。實驗設計包括三種題型，文法判斷題、翻譯題及寫作題，研究重點在於四種主題顯著的結構，包括無主詞及無受詞句型、主題化的動詞片語及子句、連續動詞結構、雙主語結構，以及兩種主詞顯著的結構，包括主詞動詞一致、虛主詞結構。質化及量化的研究結果顯示，主題結構轉移到學習者的中介語言中，且學習者會有學習主詞結構的困難。當受試者的英文程度提升，主題結構的轉移會逐漸減少且伴隨著主詞結構的發展。皮爾森相關係數亦指出此兩種語言類型的發展在學習者的中介語言中有強烈的相關性。最後，我們發現測驗題型會影響實驗結果。在兩種控制型的題型中，文法判斷題難於翻譯題。寫作測驗不像其他測驗，會造成高、中、低三組表現的差異。不同的測驗題型會改變主題顯著結構的使用趨勢。 / With regard to language typology, Mandarin Chinese has been considered a topic-prominent language while English a subject-prominent language (Li & Thompson & Thomson 1976, Rutherford, 1983, et al.) The present study explored Taiwanese EFL learners’ interlanguage from the perspective of typological transfer; it investigated the influence of first language (L1) topic-prominence typology on the transfer effect and the acquisition of L2 subject-prominence. Seventy-eight vocational high school students in Taipei County participated in the experiment and were further divided into three proficiency groups. Three tasks used to measure learners’ L2 interlanguage were a grammaticality judgment task, a translation task, and a free writing task. The tasks were designed on structures where L1 and L2 contrast typologically including four topic-prominence properties: null subject and null object, topicalized verb phrase and clause, serial verb construction, double nominatives and two subject-prominence properties: subject-verb agreement and dummy subject. Both quantitative and qualitative results showed that topic-prominence has been transferred into learners’ interlanguage; also, learners were found to have difficulty acquiring subject-prominence properties. Besides, it was discovered that as learners’ proficiency increases, there is a gradual decrease of topic-prominence and a relative development of subject-prominence. Pearson Correlation Coefficients indicated that the two linguistic typologies exert a high degree of correlation in learners’ interlanguage development. Finally, methodological effect was found in that, of the two controlled tasks, comprehension task was harder than the production task. Free writing task did not lead a significant group difference as the other tasks did. Also, different task formats changed the trend of topic-prominence transfer.

The goal of this thesis is twofold. Firstly, it investigates the actual, native use of spatial-deictic demonstratives in Japanese, Finnish and Swedish. Secondly, it investigates and elucidates the interlanguage of Finnish-speaking and Swedish-speaking learners of Japanese regarding their use of Japanese spatial-deictic demonstratives in the light of respective native use and, in comparison to the descriptions of demonstratives in the teaching materials used. Thus, the present study deals with analyses of two sets of empirical data: data produced by native-speaking informants (L1 data) and data produced by language learners (L2 data). These were elicited by Discourse Completion Tasks (DCTs) designed, collected and analyzed using both quantitative and qualitative methods by the author. The results showed that the actual use of demonstratives by the native informants was not always in accordance with the way described in grammars. The typological similarities between Japanese and Finnish were in this study not reflected in the native use of demonstratives, and some uses were not solely based on the spatial relations between the referent, the speaker and the addressee, but rather on social-interactional factors. The main findings regarding the learner data revealed some differences in the usage rate of the demonstratives between the two Finnish-speaking groups and the one Swedish-speaking learner group studied. There were, however, no particular differences found between them regarding the type of demonstrative used. It is suggested that these differences are first and foremost connected both with the teaching materials used and the more or less heterogeneous linguistic environment in which the learners reside, and only thereafter with the typological similarities or differences between their respective native languages, Finnish and Swedish, and the target language, Japanese. It is further argued that the learners’ use of the different Japanese demonstratives, that is the type of demonstrative used, could be explained in terms of familiarity with the grammar. That is, when the situations used in the DCTs were exemplified in teaching materials and were familiar to them, the learners seemed to use Japanese demonstratives as they are described in the teaching materials and as the native Japanese speakers use them. When the situations used in the DCTs were not exemplified in the teaching materials, the learners seem to rely more on their native language. The results, thus, suggest that the learners’ interlanguage is influenced by the grammar of the target language known to the learners, but also by the number of languages (or varieties) that the learners have contact with at the time of learning. The results of the present study have implications for the teaching of Japanese in at least two ways. Firstly, the importance of grammar instruction must be emphasized since its effect on the learners’ language is apparent. Secondly, the contents of teaching materials should be revised on the basis of the native speakers’ actual use of the grammar.

This thesis is concerned with the investigation of directionality of difficulty in second language acquisition (SLA) by Chinese-speaking learners learning English as a foreign language (EFL) and by English-speaking learners learning Chinese as a foreign language (CFL) . Chinese allows both subject PRO in finite clauses and object pro. However, subject PRO in finite clauses and object pro give rise to ungrammaticality in English. Unlike Chinese, in which topics can be base-generated, English does not allow a base-generated topic. Chinese and English are also different in that while English reflexives can only take a local subject in finite clauses as their antecedent (thus a short-distance reflexive), the Chinese reflexive ziji can take the matrix subject as well as the embedded subject as its antecedent (thus a long-distance reflexive) . With respect to these differences between the two languages, our focus is on whether it is more difficult for CFL learners to acquire subject PRO, object pro, base-generated topics and the long-distance reflexive in the acquisition of Chinese than for EFL learners to unlearn subject PRO, object pro, base-generated topics and the long-distance reflexive in the acquisition of English. The results of our study suggest that there is no single direction of difficulty in the SLA of Chinese and English. In terms of object pro, the direction of difficulty is from Chinese to English. However, in acquiring and unlearning the subject PRO, neither CFL learners nor EFL learners seem to have much difficulty. As for base-generated topics, it is found that the acquisition of this feature by CFL learners is more difficult than the unlearning of this feature by EFL learners. The results concerning the acquisition of the Chinese long-distance reflexive ziji by CFL learners suggest that a lack of long-distance binding for ziji is fossilized in these learners' interlanguage (IL) grammars of Chinese. Based on the findings in this study, we argue that the directionality of difficulty in SLA can only be studied with respect to individual language features and that the mere existence of relevant positive evidence in the input is not a guarantee that there will be a change in the learner's IL grammar. There are many factors involved in deciding the direction of difficulty in SLA. These factors include the availability of informative evidence to the learner, the possibility that the learner makes use of the evidence available for the restructuring of his IL grammar of the target language, the learners' ability to process the relevant data in the input, and the interaction between the structure in the learners' L1 and the inherent developmental stage of the target language.

This thesis investigates upper secondary students’ usage of scientific and colloquial language through a custom-designed game. The aim of the game is for the participants to, without any time limit, explain chemical concepts using other words than the one written on the playing card so that the partner is able to guess what the target concept is. During the audio recorded game sessions the students showed usage of scientific and colloquial language as well as a blend of these two linguistic resources. The students also used metaphors and helpwords in some measure together with a linguistic resource that seems to border to spontaneous metaphors and helpwords, here referred to as ‘phonetic metaphors’. These phonetic metaphors seem to lack a direct connection to the chemical meaning of the target concept in return for its phonetic connection to the concept. It though seems like the students’ usage of these different linguistic resources may support meaning making processes as well as memorization processes. The thesis concludes with a discussion according whether this game, if used professionally and thoughtfully, aligns with the guidelines for Assessment for Learning specified by the Assessment Reform Group and whether it may function as a tool for assessment for learning in practice.

Master of Arts / Department of Modern Languages / Li Yang / This study investigates and compares politeness strategies of Turkish learners of English (TLE) and American English speakers (AE) when they produce the speech act of refusal in English. A total of 24 participants took part in this study and each of them completed a background survey, an open role play and a semi-structured interview. The role-play asked all of the participants to refuse a party invitation offered by a classmate/colleague and was audio-recorded. The refusal interactions were coded according to the classification proposed by Beebe et al. (1990), and the sequence of the refusal interactions (i.e., head act, pre- and post-refusals) was also examined. The results showed that providing excuse/reason/explanation was the most preferred strategy by both groups overall, but closer examination of the strategy revealed that the TLE group was more specific in their explanations compared to the AE group. In addition, when the conductor of the role play insisted on the invitation, the AE group continued to refuse without giving specific reasons, whereas the TLE group chose to provide elaborate reasons upon insistence. During the interview session after the role play, the TLE group commented on cultural factors that influenced their choice of refusal strategies. Based on the findings, this study also proposed implications of the teaching of pragmatics in the English as a second language (ESL) context.

O conhecimento de duas ou mais línguas é algo muito valorizado no mundo do trabalho, assim, o interesse dos pais para que seus filhos aprendam, desde a mais tenra idade, uma língua estrangeira tem crescido. Para atender às necessidades de um mundo cada vez mais multilíngue, as escolas privadas têm incorporado a educação bilíngue na rotina das crianças. O aprendizado do alemão é visto, frequentemente, pelas famílias como um meio de assegurar aos seus filhos sucesso acadêmico, profissional e econômico no futuro. O alemão conquistou seu espaço em muitas escolas pelo Brasil, tanto no Rio Grande do Sul, estado com o maior número de imigrantes do país, como nos grandes centros urbanos. A Língua Alemã hoje é sinônimo de diferencial e a procura por ela se multiplicou nos últimos 15 anos (UPHOFF, 2011, p. 28). O presente trabalho, intitulado Rabe nicht dividieren: análise da interlíngua presente no processo de aprendizagem de Língua Alemã por crianças em uma escola bilíngue teuto-brasileira1 aborda a aprendizagem de uma nova língua em contexto de aula bilíngue. O objetivo da pesquisa foi identificar e caracterizar a vertente de educação bilíngue adotada na instituição em questão, assim como verificar e analisar os processos característicos da interlíngua que se fazem presentes na aprendizagem da Língua Alemã. Os participantes da pesquisa são alunos de uma turma do 1º ano do Ensino Fundamental e o objeto de análise são as produções orais por eles feitas ao reproduzir histórias ou descrever cenas de um livro com imagens panorâmicas. Os dados foram coletados em cinco momentos ao longo de um ano escolar. Identificou-se, a partir da análise dos dados, a ocorrência de interferências, seguida de omissões, simplificações, supergeneralizações, empréstimos e alguns casos de mistura de línguas. / The knowledge of two or more languages is something highly valued in the world of work, so the interest of parents to have their children learn, from an early age, a foreign language has grown. The insertion of children in a bilingual school context in early childhood is a current issue and has attracted the attention of parents and educators. To meet the needs of an increasingly multilingual world, private schools have incorporated bilingual education into the routine of the children. Learning German is seen by families as a means of assuring their children academic, professional and economic success in the future. German has conquered its space in many schools throughout Brazil, both in Rio Grande do Sul, the state with the largest number of German speaking immigrants in the country, and in large urban centers. The German language is seen nowadays as a differential and its demand has multiplied in the last 15 years (UPHOFF, 2011, p. 28). The present work entitled Rabe nicht dividieren: analysis of interlanguage presents in the German language learning process by children in a German-Brazilian bilingual school approaches the learning of a new language in the context of bilingual classroom. The objective of the research was to identify and characterize the bilingual education strand adopted in the institution in question, as well as to verify and analyze the characteristic interlanguage processes that are present in the learning of the German Language. Participants in the survey are children from the 1st year of Elementary School and the object of analysis is their oral productions by retelling stories or describing scenes from a wimmelbook. Data were collected at five different times throughout a school year. From the analysis of the data, we identified the occurrence of interference, followed by omissions, simplifications, supergeneralizations, loans and some cases of language mixing.

Sin Ping Wong. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1991. / Bibliography: leaves 143-147. / Abstract --- p.i / Acknowledgements --- p.ii / Table of Contents --- p.iii / Chapter CHAPTER 0. --- INTRODUCTION --- p.1 / Chapter 0.1. --- Learning the English Sound System --- p.1 / Chapter 0.2. --- The Importance of the Acquisition of English Word Stress --- p.5 / Chapter 0.2.1. --- "Stress, Morphology and Syntax" --- p.5 / Chapter 0.2.2. --- Stress and Intelligibility of Non-native Speech --- p.7 / Chapter CHAPTER 1. --- THE STRESS PATTERNS OF ENGLISH WORDS --- p.12 / Chapter 1.1. --- The Phonetic Properties of English Word Stress --- p.12 / Chapter 1.2. --- Theoretical Approaches to English Word Stress --- p.13 / Chapter 1.2.1. --- Chomsky and Halle (1968) 一一 The Sound Pattern of English --- p.14 / Chapter 1.2.1.1. --- Strong/Weak Syllables --- p.15 / Chapter 1.2.1.2. --- The Transformational Cycle --- p.15 / Chapter 1.2.1.3. --- The Main Stress Rule --- p.18 / Chapter 1.2.1.4. --- The Compound Stress Rule and Nuclear Stress Rule --- p.20 / Chapter 1.2.2. --- Liberman and Prince (1977) -- Metrical Phonology --- p.22 / Chapter 1.2.2.1. --- The Stress Rules --- p.24 / Chapter 1.2.2.2. --- The Lexical Category Prominence Rule --- p.26 / Chapter 1.2.3. --- Selkirk (1980) ´ؤ Prosodic Categories --- p.29 / Chapter 1.2.4. --- Hayes (1981) ´ؤ Extrametricality --- p.34 / Chapter 1.2.4.1. --- Rime Projection --- p.34 / Chapter 1.2.4.2. --- Extrametricality --- p.35 / Chapter 1.2.4.3. --- English Stress Rules and Word Tree Construction --- p.36 / Chapter 1.3. --- Prerequisites for the Acquisition of English Word Stress --- p.40 / Chapter CHAPTER 2. --- STUDIES ON THE ACQUISITION OF STRESS --- p.43 / Chapter 2.1. --- The Acquisition of Stress by Children --- p.43 / Chapter 2.2. --- Adults' Stress Patterns - Native Speakers and ESL Learners --- p.45 / Chapter CHAPTER 3. --- METHODOLOGY --- p.51 / Chapter 3.1. --- Research Objectives --- p.51 / Chapter 3.2. --- Research Design --- p.55 / Chapter 3.2.1. --- Test Materials --- p.55 / Chapter 3.2.1.1. --- Criteria for the Coinage of Test Items --- p.55 / Chapter 3.2.1.2. --- The Rime Structure of Test Words --- p.57 / Chapter 3.2.1.3. --- Number of Syllables and Directionality of Rule Application --- p.59 / Chapter 3.2.1.4. --- Syntactic Categories --- p.61 / Chapter 3.2.2. --- Subjects --- p.64 / Chapter 3.2.3. --- Procedure --- p.64 / Chapter CHAPTER 4. --- FINDINGS --- p.68 / Chapter 4.1. --- Overall Performance --- p.69 / Chapter 4.1.1. --- Proficiency Test --- p.69 / Chapter 4.1.2. --- Overall Performance in Test Items --- p.70 / Chapter 4.1.2.1. --- Secondary Students Versus University Students --- p.72 / Chapter 4.1.2.2. --- Syntactic Category --- p.73 / Chapter 4.2. --- Learners' Stress Patterns Classified According to Syllable Structures --- p.76 / Chapter 4.2.1. --- The Stress Patterns of ESL Learners in Verbs --- p.78 / Chapter 4.2.1.1. --- 2-syllable Verbs --- p.78 / Chapter 4.2.1.2. --- 3-syllable Verbs (Regularly Patterned Responses) --- p.83 / Chapter 4.2.1.3. --- 3-syllable Verbs (Irregularly Patterned Responses) --- p.87 / Chapter 4.2.2. --- Stress Patterns of ESL Learners in Nouns --- p.92 / Chapter 4.2.2.1. --- 2-syllable Nouns --- p.92 / Chapter 4.2.2.2. --- 3-syllable Nouns --- p.96 / Chapter 4.3. --- 4-Syllable Nouns --- p.104 / Chapter CHAPTER 5. --- DISCUSSION --- p.116 / Chapter 5.1. --- Summary of Findings --- p.117 / Chapter 5.2. --- The Metrical Theory and the Stress Patterns of ESL --- p.123 / Chapter 5.2.1. --- Rime Structures --- p.123 / Chapter 5.2.2. --- Extrametricality --- p.125 / Chapter 5.2.2.1. --- Consonant Extrametricality --- p.125 / Chapter 5.2.2.2. --- Noun Extrametricality --- p.126 / Chapter 5.2.3. --- Directionality --- p.130 / Chapter 5.2.4. --- Stress Assignment --- p.132 / Chapter 5.3. --- Second Language Acquisition --- p.137 / Chapter 5.3.1. --- Learners' Strategy --- p.137 / Chapter 5.3.2. --- Group Difference --- p.138 / Chapter 5.3.3. --- L1 Transfer --- p.139 / Chapter CHAPTER 6. --- CONCLUSION --- p.141 / REFERENCES --- p.143 / Appendix A --- p.i / Appendix B --- p.vi / Appendix C --- p.xvi