"Rwanda was largely destroyed in 1994. Among an endless host of problems, highly complex questions and dilemmas of justice, unity, and reconciliation haunt Rwanda to this day. A basic question confronting Rwanda is how to deal with the legacy of the conflict that culminated in the genocide of the Tutsi and in the massacres of Hutu opponents of the genocide. The UN set up an International Criminal Tribunal in Arusha, Tanzania, and Rwanda has its own courts. In both cases, the process of trying accused genocidaires is long, laborious, and frustrating. Only eight convictions have been handed down in Arusha after five years of work, while in Rwanda only some 3,000 cases have been disposed of. At least 120,000 detainees are in prisons around the country, the vast majority of whom are accused of participation in the genocide. At the present rate it is estimated that it will take anywhere between two and four centuries to try all those in detention. The Rwandese government has developed a new procedure called “gacaca,” lower-level tribunals that attempt to blend traditional and contemporary mechanisms to expedite the justice process in a way that promotes reconciliation. The impact of gacaca remains to be seen, and as a process, it certainly needs an evaluation or, at least, an attempt to evaluate its possible contribution to the perplexing questions of justice, unity and social reconstruction in the aftermath of genocide. This paper mainly aims to analyse the draft legislation on the gacaca jurisdictions. Further, this essay attempts to examine the impact of criminal trials in the aftermath of mass violence and genocide. Although conventional wisdom holds that criminal trials promote several goals, including uncovering the truth; avoiding collective accountability by individualising guilt; breaking cycle of impunity; deterring future war crimes; providing closure for the victims and fostering democratic institutions, little is known about the role that judicial intervention have in rebuilding societies. The present essay deals only with criminal trials. By definition, these are focused on the perpetrators of abuses and their allies. Although not examined in the essay, a comprehensive and holistic approach to dealing with a legacy of past atrocities should also include range of victim-focused efforts, such as programs for compensation and rehabilitation, the establishment of memorials, and the organisation of appropriate commemorations. The main sources of this study are textbooks, articles from journals and official documents of national and international bodies. Since this essay aims at evaluating the gacaca proposals, a great deal of attention is paid to the terms of the draft legislation. It is certainly premature to make an in-depth assessment of a draft law and the merits and flaws of the legal institution it is designed to set up. Only gradually and over a period of time can the gacaca become effective and credible. Further research aimed at gathering data through interviews, field observations, participant observation, study and analysis of the implementation can also illuminate experience in ways that analysis of published sources do not. A thorough and sound appraisal of this new institution must therefore wait some time. I shall nevertheless attempt in this essay to set out some initial and tentative comments on some of the salient traits of the future gacaca tribunals. This paper makes a preliminary “human rights impact assessment” of the implementation of the draft law establishing “gacaca jurisdictions”. The potential role of the new institution in rebuilding the Rwandese society is also discussed. Considering the many complex issues which still surround the process of justice in Rwanda six years after the genocide, as well as the continuing challenge to the judicial system in terms of the inadequacy of resources for dealing with such an enormous caseload, recommendations to help the process follow the analysis of the gacaca proposals (Chapter Three). To end impunity, it is necessary to respond in accordance with human rights law to the genocide and mass killings. Therefore, the starting point for our evaluation of the gacaca proposals will be an analysis of the proposals in human rights law. Does human rights law impose any affirmative duties to punish genocide and other mass killings that occurred in Rwanda? In addition, for the “gacaca jurisdictions” to be effective, they should not be viewed in isolation, as their performance will depend to a large extent on whether other judicial mechanisms and institutions are functioning properly. The relationships between the gacaca jurisdiction and other mechanisms are thus reviewed. In particular, the process of setting up the gacaca jurisdictions should include an evaluation of the genocide trials which have taken place to date both at the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda and in the domestic courts and apply the lessons learnt (Chapter Two). An evaluation of the potential contribution of the use of gacaca courts needs to be put into the broader context of the conflict in Rwanda. Thus, an analysis of the conflict in Rwanda is necessary to grasp the challenges facing the questions of justice and social reconstruction in the aftermath of genocide in Rwanda (Chapter One)." -- Introduction. / Prepared under the supervision of Professor Jeremy Sarkin, Faculty of Law, University of the Western Cape / Thesis (LLM (Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa)) -- University of Pretoria, 2000. / http://www.chr.up.ac.za/academic_pro/llm1/dissertations.html / Centre for Human Rights / LLM

La notion de crimes contre l’humanité s’est affirmée au lendemain de la seconde guerre mondiale. Elle a pris une dimension nouvelle au tournant de la décennie 90. Le génocide rwandais, puis les crimes commis contre les populations civiles albanaises en ex-Yougoslavie, sont passés par là ; ils ont alimenté les débats, soulevés des inquiétudes, et semblent avoir réveillé la « conscience humanitaire » de la « communauté internationale ». Ce réveil coïncide aussi – et ce n’est pas un hasard – avec la fin d’un monde bipolaire (chute du mur de Berlin, effondrement de l’URSS et dislocation des pays du bloc de l’Est). Ainsi, la résurgence du concept de crimes contre l’humanité intervient dans un monde en rupture profonde ; une rupture qui ne manque pas de produire ses effets sur le sens, la définition et la portée du concept. Autrement dit, l’idée de crimes contre l’humanité se déploie dans un monde mouvant où le Droit, plus que jamais, se heurte à la souveraineté des États et aux intérêts stratégiques et géopolitiques des « Puissants », comme en témoigne la gestation difficile de la Cour pénale internationale (CPI). Plus concrètement, les rapports de force tiennent une place importante et continuent de gérer les relations internationales, même dans un domaine qui, en principe, devrait être consensuel : les crimes contre l’humanité. Dans ce contexte, il n’est pas surprenant de voir certains pays accusés de crimes contre l’humanité (le Soudan, la Somalie, la Serbie, la Libye…), mais pas d’autres (crimes commis dans les territoires palestiniens, tortures et crimes commis par l’armée américaine en Irak…). Cette thématique, reposant sur l’idée que la force du droit se heurte au droit de la force, pourrait justifier l’idée selon laquelle le concept de crimes contre l’humanité, tel qu’il se manifeste aujourd’hui, est loin d’être un concept tout à fait neutre. De là découle la formulation de notre hypothèse : alors que les crimes contre l’humanité apparaissent comme un concept en quête d’identité, son application s’avère difficile et à « géométrie variable ». / The notion of crimes against humanity asserted itself after the Second World War. It took a new dimension in the bend of the 90's, after the Rwandan genocide, then the crimes committed against the Albanian civil populations in ex-Yugoslavia. Those events fed the debates, raised anxieties, and seem to have woken the " humanitarian consciousness " of the " international community ". This awakening also coincides - and it is not a fate - with the end of a bipolar world (fall of the Berlin Wall, collapse of the USSR and dislocation of the countries of the east block). So, the resurgence of the concept of crimes against humanity intervenes in a world in deep break; a break which produce its effects on the sense, the definition and the impact of the concept. In other words, the idea of crimes against humanity spreads in an unstable world where the right, more than ever, collides with the sovereignty of States and with the strategic and geopolitical interests of "Powerful", as shows of it the difficult gestation of the International Criminal Court (CPI). More concretely, the balance of power holds an important place and continue to rule the international relations, even in a domain which, in theory, should be consensual: the crimes against humanity. In this context, it is not surprising to see certain countries accused of crimes against humanity (Sudan, Somalia, Serbia, Libya), wheras others crimes and tortures (those committed in the Palestinian territories or by the American army in Iraq...) remain unpunished. This theme, basing on the idea that the power of right collides with the law of the strongest, could justify the idea according to which the concept of crimes against humanity is far from being a completely neutral concept. From there ensues the formulation of our hypothesis: while the crimes against humanity appear as a concept in search of identity, its application turns out difficult and seems to vary according to circumstances (variable-geometry).

The principal questions addressed in this portfolio of eleven publications concern the reforms to French justice at the end of the twentieth and beginning of the twenty-first centuries. The portfolio is accompanied by a supporting statement explaining the genesis and chronology of the portfolio, its originality and the nature of the submission's distinct contribution to knowledge. The thesis questions whether the reforms protect the rights of the defence adequately. It considers how the French state views its responsibility to key figures in criminal justice, be they suspected and convicted criminals, the victims of offences or the professionals who are prosecuting the offences. It reflects upon the role of the examining magistrate, the delicate relationship between justice, politics and the media, breaches of confidentiality and the catastrophic conditions in which suspects and prisoners are detained in French prisons. It then extends its scope to a case study of the prosecution of violent crimes before the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, and discovers significant flaws in procedures even at international levels. In concluding, it asks whether, given the challenges facing the French criminal justice system, French courts are adequately equipped to assure justice when suspects charged with the most serious international crimes appear before them under the principle of universal jurisdiction. The research, carried out over a number of years, relies predominantly on an analysis of French-language sources and represents a unique contribution to the understanding and knowledge of French justice for an English-speaking public at the turn of the twenty-first century.

Throughout the past three decades the world has witnessed an increased transition of states from autocratic systems to liberal democracies. During such transitions the reconciliation of societies fractured by previous human atrocities is an integral part for success. This article explores the impacts of principles of truth and justice on reconciliation of fractured societies during the process of transitional justice. Throughout the process it will provide an insight on different aspects and levels of the terminology of reconciliation. To illustrate the difference between a judicial approach and the process of amnesty giving, it will contrast the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa. Furthermore, it will provide an analytical account on the impact of internal actors versus external actors on reconciliation of fractured societies. This analysis will provide an understanding of the factors at work during reconciliation as a process and an outcome.

La présente thèse a pour objet l’étude de la relation entre la preuve et la responsabilité pénale des supérieurs hiérarchiques devant les juridictions pénales internationales. Ces juridictions sont chargées de juger les responsables des crimes de masse. La question est donc de savoir comment elles procèdent, sur quelles preuves elles se basent et quel mode de participation est le plus adapté pour juger ces responsables. / This thesis deals with the study of the relationship between evidence and criminal responsibility of high ranking officers before international criminal courts. These courts judge the persons responsible for having committed mass crimes. The question is how they proceed, on which evidence they rely and which mode of participation is the most adequate to do so.

Magister Legum - LLM / Even though sexual violence has always been a part and parcel of conflicts and atrocities throughout the ages, it never found any interpretation by subsequent tribunals who were responsible for prosecuting offenders.The case of The Prosecutor v Jean-Paul Akayesu was the first of its kind to give jurisprudential recognition and interpretation to sexual violence as war crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide respectively. This case was important for the following reasons:1. It acknowledged that sexual violence can amount to an act of genocide; 2. It acknowledged that sexual violence can amount to a crime against humanity; and 3. It was the first case to define rape within an international context.Following the case of The Prosecutor v Jean-Paul Akayesu many tribunals gave recognition to the extent of which sexual violence takes place during atrocities by correctly convicting accused for either participating in sexual violence or aiding and abetting to sexual violence. Amidst the various interpretations on what constitutes sexual violence and how it is defined, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda and the Special Court for Sierra Leone all either conceptualised sexual violence as genocide, war crimes or/ and crimes against humanity.At the same time, the development of sexual violence as either a crime against humanity or a war crime did not end with the courts. The case of The Prosecutor v Jean-Paul Akayesu sparked a fire in the international community, which led to it paying more attention to the place of sexual violence in treaty law. Taking into account that rape is listed as a crime against humanity in both the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda statutes, the Special Court for Sierra Leone and the International Criminal Court statutes both list more than one form of sexual violence as a crime against humanity. It is interesting to note that the latter two treaty developments took place only after the International Criminal Tribunal conceptualised sexual violence as a crime against humanity.Thus apart from merely listing rape as a crime against humanity, the Statute establishing the Special Court for Sierra Leone, states in article 2(g) that sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy and any other form of sexual violence constitutes a crime against humanity. The Statute establishing the International Criminal Court states in article 7(1)(g) that rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilisation or any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity constitutes a crime against humanity. The interpretation of these acts is further guided by the ‘Elements of Crimes’ which are annexed to the International Criminal Court statute.Once again it is interesting to note that the ‘Elements of Crimes’ for these acts are similar to how the International Criminal Tribunals (both the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda tribunals) conceptualised various acts of sexual violence.On the other hand, the definition of genocide remained the same as it was defined in the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide of 1948. This definition does not expressly mention any form of sexual violence as a form of genocide.However, once again, the trial chamber in the case of The Prosecutor v Jean-Paul Akayesu set the benchmark for sexual violence to constitute a form of genocide by way of interpretation. The definition of genocide did not subsequently change in the Statute establishing the International Criminal Court.Based on these premises, this thesis attempts to investigate the similarities and differences in sexual violence as a form of both genocide and a crime against humanity,by addressing the following question:What are the essential and practical differences between sexual violence as crimes against humanity and genocide and what is the legal effect of the differences, should there be any? Chapter 1 highlights the historical overview and developments of sexual violence as genocide and crimes against humanity, while chapter 2 investigates how sexual violence can amount to a form of genocide. Chapter 3 assesses the advances made in sexual violence as a crime against humanity, while chapter 4 importantly draws a comparative analysis between sexual violence as genocide and a crime against humanity. Chapter 4 draws this comparison by weighing up four differences and four similarities in sexual violence as genocide and a crime against humanity.Chapter 5 highlights the conclusion and provides an answer for the research question that is posed above. Here it is concluded that even though there exist multiple differences in sexual violence as crimes against humanity and genocide, there are also multiple similarities which could possibly amount to a better chance for conviction of an accused under a crime against humanity than genocide. Chapter 5 also provide possible recommendations for the consequences that might flow should sexual violence as a crime against humanity be fairly similar to sexual violence as genocide.

Este trabalho tem por objetivo debater a contribuição e o papel que a jurisprudência do Tribunal Penal Internacional para a ex-Iugoslávia desempenhou no processo de produção e desenvolvimento do direito internacional penal costumeiro sobre crimes contra a humanidade e sua influência na formação do conteúdo normativo atual do art. 7o(1),(2)(a), do Estatuto de Roma, que trata do crime contra a humanidade. Para isso, analisa-se como a Corte determinou o costume válido sobre as elementares do crime contra a humanidade nos casos Duko Tadie Draen Erdemovi, julgados antes da conferência de Roma. Em seguida, examina-se a teoria das fontes, mais especificamente, o costume internacional, seu fundamento, seus dois elementos (combinação de prática e opinio iuris), bem como seus sujeitos criadores e veículos de exteriorização, em especial a jurisprudência internacional. Nesse percurso, apontam-se as práticas destoantes do costume e a dificuldade de sua determinação, para então indicar o binômio valor e poder como elementos que influenciam sua manifestação. Depois, procura-se verificar o contexto político e jurídico de criação do Tribunal Penal Internacional para a ex-Iugoslávia, associando-o à proteção do valor paz mundial e às alterações das estruturas de poder da ordem internacional. Então, faz-se uma avaliação da contribuição dos julgados analisados como veículos para exteriorização do costume ou de seus elementos. Por fim, com a análise da coincidência de resultados no que tange à estrutura de algumas das elementares decididas pelo Tribunal Penal Internacional para a ex-Iugoslávia e o conteúdo normativo atual do art. 7o(1),(2)(a) do Estatuto de Roma, pode-se concluir que a jurisprudência estudada veiculou parte da opinio iuris do direito costumeiro sobre crimes contra a humanidade, contribuindo, assim, com o desenvolvimento do direito internacional penal sobre o tema. / This work aims to discuss the contribution and the role that the jurisprudence of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia played in the production and development of international criminal customary law on crimes against humanity and its influence in shaping the article 7o(1),(2)(a), of the Rome Statute, about crime against humanity. In order to accomplish this task, it analyses how the Court defined valid custom on the chapeau elements of crime against humanity in the Duko Tadi and Draen Erdemovi cases. Next, it considers the theory of sources, more specifically, international custom, its basis, its two elements (combination of state practice and opinion juris), as well as its subjects and forms of externalization, including international decisions. About this, it points out the dissonant ways custom emerges and the difficulty of its determination, then indicating values and power as elements that influence its manifestation. After, it analyses the political and juridical contexts in which the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia was established, relating it with the protection of world peace, as a value, and the changes in the power structures of international order. Then, it unpacks the contribution of the above decisions (Duko Tadi and Draen Erdemovi cases) as vehicles of externalization of custom or, at least, one of its elements. Finally, with the analyse of the coincidence between the chapeau elements of crimes against humanity as decided by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and the current normative content of article 7o(1),(2)(a),of the Rome Statute, it can be concluded that the jurisprudence studied ran part of the opinion jurisabout crimes against humanity as an element of custom, thus, contributing to the development of international criminal law on that issue.

Este trabalho tem por objetivo debater a contribuição e o papel que a jurisprudência do Tribunal Penal Internacional para a ex-Iugoslávia desempenhou no processo de produção e desenvolvimento do direito internacional penal costumeiro sobre crimes contra a humanidade e sua influência na formação do conteúdo normativo atual do art. 7o(1),(2)(a), do Estatuto de Roma, que trata do crime contra a humanidade. Para isso, analisa-se como a Corte determinou o costume válido sobre as elementares do crime contra a humanidade nos casos Duko Tadie Draen Erdemovi, julgados antes da conferência de Roma. Em seguida, examina-se a teoria das fontes, mais especificamente, o costume internacional, seu fundamento, seus dois elementos (combinação de prática e opinio iuris), bem como seus sujeitos criadores e veículos de exteriorização, em especial a jurisprudência internacional. Nesse percurso, apontam-se as práticas destoantes do costume e a dificuldade de sua determinação, para então indicar o binômio valor e poder como elementos que influenciam sua manifestação. Depois, procura-se verificar o contexto político e jurídico de criação do Tribunal Penal Internacional para a ex-Iugoslávia, associando-o à proteção do valor paz mundial e às alterações das estruturas de poder da ordem internacional. Então, faz-se uma avaliação da contribuição dos julgados analisados como veículos para exteriorização do costume ou de seus elementos. Por fim, com a análise da coincidência de resultados no que tange à estrutura de algumas das elementares decididas pelo Tribunal Penal Internacional para a ex-Iugoslávia e o conteúdo normativo atual do art. 7o(1),(2)(a) do Estatuto de Roma, pode-se concluir que a jurisprudência estudada veiculou parte da opinio iuris do direito costumeiro sobre crimes contra a humanidade, contribuindo, assim, com o desenvolvimento do direito internacional penal sobre o tema. / This work aims to discuss the contribution and the role that the jurisprudence of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia played in the production and development of international criminal customary law on crimes against humanity and its influence in shaping the article 7o(1),(2)(a), of the Rome Statute, about crime against humanity. In order to accomplish this task, it analyses how the Court defined valid custom on the chapeau elements of crime against humanity in the Duko Tadi and Draen Erdemovi cases. Next, it considers the theory of sources, more specifically, international custom, its basis, its two elements (combination of state practice and opinion juris), as well as its subjects and forms of externalization, including international decisions. About this, it points out the dissonant ways custom emerges and the difficulty of its determination, then indicating values and power as elements that influence its manifestation. After, it analyses the political and juridical contexts in which the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia was established, relating it with the protection of world peace, as a value, and the changes in the power structures of international order. Then, it unpacks the contribution of the above decisions (Duko Tadi and Draen Erdemovi cases) as vehicles of externalization of custom or, at least, one of its elements. Finally, with the analyse of the coincidence between the chapeau elements of crimes against humanity as decided by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and the current normative content of article 7o(1),(2)(a),of the Rome Statute, it can be concluded that the jurisprudence studied ran part of the opinion jurisabout crimes against humanity as an element of custom, thus, contributing to the development of international criminal law on that issue.

Magister Legum - LLM / Hybrid Courts are the latest innovation in the prosecution of international crimes after the era of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) and the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY). Examples include; the Extraordinary African Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, the Regulation 64 Panels in the courts of Kosovo and the Special Court for Sierra Leone. The hybrid court model at its inception was believed to be the panacea for the short comings of purely international tribunals. The characteristic location of the tribunals in the locus of the atrocities and the participation of local judicial officers alongside their international counterparts was expected to promote legitimacy and foster capacity building for conflict ravaged transitional states. Despite the criticisms of the model today, a new hybrid court has recently been inaugurated to prosecute Hissène Habré the former President of Chad, for international crimes committed during his presidency. The promulgation of the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Senegal suggests that the model continues to be useful, especially for Africa. This is of particular significance since international criminal justice has lately come under attack on the continent. The on-going feud between the African Union and the International Criminal court is only the most prolific example of this. This research paper explores the dimensions of the challenges facing the legitimacy of international criminal justice in Africa and the extent to which the hybrid court model can provide a solution for them. In order to do so, the study begins by addressing the meaning of legitimacy within the African context. A general discussion of hybrid tribunals, as well as the specific manifestations of the model in Africa so far, follows. The Special Court for Sierra Leone and the Extraordinary African Chambers in the Courts of Senegal are distinguishable from each other in structure and are thus juxtaposed in order to illuminate possible improvements on the hybrid court model for the future.

The thesis deals with the comparison of interpreting at international criminal tribunals in the past and present. This is a comparison outlined by the Nuremberg Trials and the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in The Hague. First, the case study focuses on the characteristics of conference interpreting in the Nuremberg trials, followed by the characteristics of interpreting in the case of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. The thesis provides a historical overview, characteristics of interpreting, defines the role and position of an interpreter in the past and now and focuses on possible changes in interpreting supported by the development of the society. Not only the existing documents and published sources are used, but a questionnaire survey is conducted with professional interpreters, who worked at the tribunal in The Hague.