L’enseignement-apprentissage du lexique spécialisé chinois est un chemin semé d’obstacles. Pour les apprenants non natifs, les combinaisons lexicales spécialisées (CLS) (L’Homme, 2000) soulèvent des difficultés syntaxico sémantiques et représentent ainsi un défi majeur dans l’acquisition de compétences lexicales. On recense, toutefois, peu de propositions méthodologiques pour résoudre ces difficultés dans la littérature consacrée à la didactique du chinois sur objectifs spécifiques (COS) (Q. Li, 2011). Dans cette recherche, nous nous attachons à explorer de quelle manière une méthode de description lexicale basée sur une représentation sémantique et syntaxique assiste les apprenants non natifs dans la résolution des problèmes lexicaux soulevés par les CLS. Notre thèse vise à concevoir une méthode de description des CLS en vue de la résolution de difficultés lexicales par les locuteurs non sinophones. La méthode mise au point est appliquée à l’élaboration du dictionnaire CHINOINFO, une ressource lexicale chinois-français portant sur le domaine de l’informatique. Cette ressource s’adresse aux apprenants francophones du chinois. L’objectif secondaire de notre thèse consiste à évaluer l’efficacité du CHINOINFO auprès des apprenants francophones qui reçoivent une formation de chinois dans un établissement universitaire au Québec ou en Chine. Notre recherche fait appel à des notions empruntées à trois cadres théoriques. Premièrement, la Lexicologie explicative et combinatoire (Mel’čuk et al., 1995) nous sert d’appui théorique pour fonder la description des CLS sur la représentation sémantique du lexique spécialisé. Deuxièmement, notre démarche de collecte et d’analyse des CLS est guidée par l’approche lexico sémantique à la terminologie (L’Homme, 2020a). Enfin, nous nous appuyons sur l’approche cognitive en didactique des langues secondes (Chastain, 1990) pour envisager une présentation structurée des connaissances lexicales. Notre démarche méthodologique s’est déroulée en trois phases. Nous avons d’abord assemblé un corpus spécialisé chinois pour en extraire un échantillon de CLS et les renseignements permettant de les décrire. L’analyse des données collectées à partir du corpus nous a amenée à anticiper trois types de difficultés syntaxico-sémantiques soulevées par les CLS : 1) distinguer les acceptions d’un polysème dans différentes CLS; 2) différencier les sens distincts de CLS de forme identique; 3) choisir les cooccurrents appropriés d’un terme. À la deuxième phase, nous avons mobilisé différentes stratégies pour décrire les propriétés syntaxico-sémantiques des CLS. Une méthode descriptive intégrant les solutions proposées a ensuite été appliquée à la création du CHINOINFO. Cette ressource en ligne répertorie 91 termes fondamentaux du domaine de l’informatique, pour lesquels nous avons encodé au total 282 termes reliés et 644 CLS. La structuration des données au sein des articles s’est largement inspirée de l’adaptation du DiCoInfo (Observatoire de linguistique Sens-Texte, 2022) à un dictionnaire d’apprentissage (Alipour, 2014). Différents moyens techniques ont été mis en œuvre pour assurer la convivialité de la ressource. La dernière phase de notre recherche consiste en une expérimentation comparative visant à évaluer l’efficacité pédagogique du CHINOINFO. Nous avons fait passer un test lexical à deux groupes d’apprenants francophones, soit le groupe contrôle (GC) et le groupe expérimental (GE), en leur proposant un nombre d’outils de référence. Seul le GE a eu accès à CHINOINFO. Nous avons aussi collecté, au moyen de questionnaires de sondage, le profil des participants ainsi que leur appréciation sur le test et les outils de référence proposés. De manière générale, l’analyse comparative des résultats du test lexical montre que le GE a mieux réussi à résoudre les trois types de difficultés soulevées par les CLS. Les participants étaient plutôt satisfaits de l’organisation du test. Le GE a eu moins de difficultés à réaliser le test puisqu’il se sentait mieux outillé pour trouver des éléments de réponses aux questions du test par rapport GC. Le GE s’est exprimé favorablement quant à l’utilité du CHINOINFO pour résoudre les problèmes lexicaux dans le cadre de notre expérimentation. Pour conclure, les résultats de notre analyse fournissent des indices sur l’apport du CHINOINFO en tant qu’une ressource d’apprentissage des CLS, ce qui laisse entrevoir l’intérêt de la méthode de description lexicale que nous avons proposée dans un contexte pédagogique. / The teaching and learning of Chinese specialized lexicon is a path strewn with obstacles. For non-native learners, specialized lexical combinations (SLCs) (L’Homme, 2000) raise syntactic and semantic difficulties and thus represent a major challenge in the acquisition of lexical skills. However, there are few methodological proposals to solve these difficulties in the literature devoted to the teaching practice and applied research of Chinese for specific purposes (Q. Li, 2011). In this research, we explore how a lexical description method based on semantic and syntactic representation assists non-native learners in solving lexical problems raised by SLCs. This thesis aims at designing a method for describing SLCs to help non-Chinese speakers solve lexical difficulties. The proposed method is applied to develop CHINOINFO, a Chinese-French dictionary of computer science and information technology terms. This lexical resource is designed for French-speaking learners of Chinese and can also be used as a writing tool for language professionals (translators, technical writers, and proofreaders), as well as professionals in this field. The secondary objective of this thesis is to evaluate the pedagogical effectiveness of the developed resource among French-speaking university students. This research draws on concepts derived from three theoretical frameworks. Firstly, the Explanatory and Combinatorial Lexicology (Mel’čuk et al., 1995) provides theoretical support for founding the lexical description on the representation of semantic features of the specialized lexicon. Secondly, the collection and analysis of SLCs are guided by the lexical-semantic approach to terminology (L’Homme, 2020a). Finally, we draw on the cognitive approach to second language didactics (Chastain, 1990) to explore the effective ways to organize and present the descriptive information of the specialized lexicon. Our methodological approach was carried out in three stages. We started by assembling a specialized Chinese corpus to extract a sample of SLCs and their descriptive information. The analysis of the data collected from the corpus led us to anticipate three types of syntaxico-semantic difficulties raised by SLCs: 1) distinguishing polysemes in different SLCs; 2) identifying, in a given context, the meaning of a lexical combination that is syntactically ambiguous; and 3) selecting appropriate co-occurrents for a term. In the second stage, we deployed different strategies to describe the syntaxico-semantic features of SLCs. Subsequently, a descriptive method that incorporates the proposed solutions has been applied to the creation of CHINOINFO. This online lexical resource contains 91 basic terms related to computer science and information technology. For these terms, we encoded a total of 282 related terms and 644 SLCs. The organization of content in the entries has been largely inspired by the conversion of DiCoInfo (Observatoire de linguistique Sens-Texte, 2022) into a learner’s dictionary (Alipour, 2014). We used various techniques to make the resource user-friendly. The final stage of our research consists of a comparative experiment to evaluate the pedagogical effectiveness of CHINOINFO. We had two groups of French-speaking learners, the control group (CG) and the experimental group (EG), take a lexical test by providing them with several reference materials. Only the EG had access to CHINOINFO during the test. We also collected the information about the participants' learning profile and their appreciation of the test and the proposed reference materials. Overall, the comparative analysis of the test results shows that the GE succeeded better in solving the three types of difficulties raised by the SLCs. The participants were quite satisfied with the organization of the lexical test. The EG encountered less difficulty in answering questions during the test since they felt better equipped to find elements of answers in the reference materials than the GC. The EG commented favorably on the utility of CHINOINFO in solving lexical problems. To conclude, the results of our experiment provide clues about the pedagogical interest of CHINOINFO as a SLC learning resource, which suggests the relevance of the lexical description method we proposed in a pedagogical context.

[pt] Este estudo apresenta uma pesquisa temática envolvendo Terminologia, Estudos de Tradução Baseados em Corpus, Terminologia Computacional e Semântica Lexical, e tem como objeto de estudo a área do Corpo de Fuzileiros Navais. O objetivo desta pesquisa foi de criar um material terminológico por meio de uma metodologia híbrida de extração de termos desenvolvida a partir de testes com ferramentas de Extração Automática de Termos (EAT). Assim, buscou-se solucionar tanto problemas tradutórios relacionados à subárea de estudo quanto à detecção e validação de candidatos a termos em um corpus. Primeiramente, foi realizado um estudo piloto com o objetivo de avaliar as ferramentas TermoStat Web 3.0 e AntConc 3.5.7. Após os testes por meio da análise de um corpus paralelo bilíngue, foram selecionadas as melhores condições identificadas para se obter uma metodologia eficaz de extração automática de termos aliada à análise humana. Em seguida, essa metodologia foi utilizada para a análise de um corpus bilíngue comparável. Os candidatos a termos extraídos foram então validados pelos critérios de Semântica Lexical propostos por L Homme (2020) e, em seguida, foram detectados seus equivalentes terminológicos. Este estudo resultou na criação do léxico bilíngue Espírito de Corpus. / [en] This study presents a thematic research in the Marine Corps area involving Terminology, Corpus-Based Translation Studies, Computational Terminology and Lexical Semantics. The objective of this research was to create a terminological material through a hybrid methodology of term extraction developed from tests with Automatic Term Extraction (ATE) tools. Thus, we sought to solve both translation problems related to the subarea of study and to the detection and validation of term candidates in a corpus. First, a pilot study was conducted aiming to analyze two tools – TermoStat Web 3.0 and AntConc 3.5.7. After the conduction of the tests through the analysis of a bilingual parallel corpus, the best conditions identified were selected to obtain an effective methodology of automatic extraction of terms allied to human analysis. Then, this methodology was used for the analysis of a comparable bilingual corpus. The term candidates automatically extracted were then validated by the Lexical Semantics criteria proposed by L Homme (2020) and their translation equivalents were detected. This study resulted in the creation of the bilingual lexicon Espírito de Corpus.

Les élèves à risque sont au cœur des préoccupations éducatives actuelles qui priorisent, nommément, la prévention de l’abandon scolaire (MEQ, 2017). Or, ces élèves peinent souvent à atteindre les cibles de réussite, en particulier concernant le développement des connaissances lexicales (Roux-Baron, 2019). C’est dans ce contexte que s’inscrit cette recherche, qui vise à créer et à expérimenter des séquences basées sur l’enseignement direct de vocabulaire (EDV) et sur l’oral réflexif (OR) auprès d’élèves, notamment à risque, du 1er cycle du primaire. Si l’EDV se traduit par l’explication, par l’enseignante, de mots ciblés dans des œuvres jeunesse suivie de la consolidation de ces mots dans divers contextes de réemploi (Beck et coll., 2013), l’OR contribue plutôt à une connaissance en profondeur des concepts par la coconstruction des savoirs (Chabanne et Bucheton, 2002). Six enseignantes du 1er cycle du primaire et leurs élèves (n=126) ont participé à cette recherche quasi expérimentale. Chaque enseignante (et son groupe d’élèves) était associée à une condition expérimentale (activités de consolidation avec/sans OR) ; dans chaque groupe, certains élèves étaient considérés à risque en raison d’un bagage lexical plus limité. Les enseignantes et la chercheuse ont mis en œuvre trois blocs d’intervention basés sur la démarche d’EDV, qui ont conduit à une collecte mixte de données. Des pré/posttests ont renseigné sur les apprentissages lexicaux des élèves, selon leur condition expérimentale, leur profil et le type d’étayage reçu (soutenu ou non). Des données qualitatives, issues de bandes vidéos, de journaux de bord et d’entretiens ont permis de documenter le réemploi spontané des mots ciblés par les élèves et de valider les conditions de mise en œuvre de l’OR. L’évolution significative des scores globaux (pré/posttests) aux trois blocs confirme d’abord l’efficacité de la démarche d’EDV auprès de tous les élèves. L’analyse des données qualitatives témoigne par ailleurs de la qualité des discussions en OR, mais démontre une appropriation graduelle de la posture en OR chez les enseignantes et les élèves, des constats cruciaux pour valider et expliquer les résultats issus de la comparaison des conditions expérimentales. Ainsi, l’analyse des données quantitatives indique qu’une approche de consolidation des mots en OR parait favorable au rappel du sens des mots et à la production de leur forme orale, progressivement au fil de l’expérimentation. Chez les élèves à risque, l’influence favorable d’une approche en OR s’observe au bloc 3, cette fois sur l’ensemble des connaissances lexicales réceptives et productives. Les résultats comparés selon le profil des élèves ne démontrent toutefois pas l’effet de l’étayage soutenu offert aux élèves à risque ; ces derniers conserveraient néanmoins (comme leurs pairs) leurs apprentissages lexicaux dans le temps, du moins en réception. Enfin, les élèves à risque associés à la condition OR réemploieraient spontanément plus souvent les mots ciblés et utiliseraient une plus grande variété de mots appris que leurs pairs. En somme, notre étude démontre le bien-fondé de poursuivre la recherche sur l’OR et l’EDV, voire sur leur alliance, qui parait une avenue prometteuse, favorable au développement lexical de tous les apprenants, notamment des jeunes élèves à risque. / At-risk students are at the heart of current educational concerns, which aim to act preventively to counter the dropping out of school phenomenon (MEQ, 2017). However, these students often struggle to achieve success targets, particularly regarding the development of lexical knowledge (Roux-Baron, 2019). Our doctoral research takes place in this context, with the aim of creating and experimenting a teaching approach based on robust vocabulary teaching (RVT) and reflective oral (RO) with students, especially at-risk ones, in the 1st cycle of primary school. If RVT results in the explanation, by the teacher, of targeted words in children's book, supplemented by follow-up activities in various contexts of reuse (Beck et al., 2013), OR, for its part, contributes to an in-depth knowledge of concepts through the co-construction of knowledge (Chabanne and Bucheton, 2002). Six primary school teachers and their students (n=126) participated in this quasi-experimental research. Each teacher (and their group of students) was associated with an experimental condition (follow-up activities with/without RO). Furthermore, in each group, certain students were considered at-risk due to a more limited lexical background. The teachers, with the researcher, implemented three intervention sequences based on the RVT approach. The experiment led to the collection of mixed data. Pre/posttests provided information on students’ vocabulary learning, according to their experimental condition, their profile, and the type of support received (sustained support or not). Qualitative data extracted from videotapes, logbooks, and interviews, made it possible to keep traces of the spontaneous reuse of the targeted words by the students while also validating the conditions for implementing RO. The significant evolution of overall scores (pre/post-tests) in all three sequences first confirms the effectiveness of the RVT approach with all students. Moreover, the analysis of qualitative data reflects the quality of discussions but also demonstrates a gradual appropriation of the RO posture among teachers and students, crucial findings for validating and explaining the results arising from the comparison of experimental conditions. Thus, the analysis of the quantitative data indicates that an approach that consists of consolidating words in RO appears favorable to the recall of the meaning of the words and on the production of their oral form, gradually over the course of the experiment. Among at-risk students, the favorable influence of an RO approach is observed, more specifically in the third sequence, on all receptive and productive lexical knowledge. However, comparing results according to student profile does not demonstrate the effect of the sustained support offered to at-risk students; the latter would nevertheless maintain (like their peers) their vocabulary learning over time, at least in reception. Finally, at-risk students associated with the RO condition would spontaneously reuse targeted words more often and use a greater variety of learned words than their peers. In conclusion, our study demonstrates the merits of continuing research on RO and RVT, or even on the alliance between the two, which has shown itself to be a promising avenue for creating favorable conditions for the vocabulary development of all learners, particularly young at-risk students.

[EN] The image of the Colombian people has been built up in the Spanish press over the past decades. The atmosphere creating the image and the lexical universe is limited to certain themes and this has meant that the discourse used in the Spanish newspapers follows concrete patterns, mainly related to immigration, crime, hired killers and drug trafficking.. The continuous publication of these themes highlights characteristics and manifestations with a clearly negative tendency, where as the argumentation is based on political instability and delinquency. Thus, the national Spanish newspapers focus their publications mainly on criminal activities carried out by Colombians in Spain, from theft to murder, and on the situation in Colombia, relating topics like poverty and extreme violence, generating a direct reaction in the imagination of the readers and spreading the representation of Columbians as delinquents, poor people and outcast victims of an internal conflict and as criminals and drug traffickers. This link has made it possible to have a clear concept with concrete characteristics. That image, embedded in their way of thinking, allows for a specific concept about the Colombians, even in news topics where the nationality of the person concerned has not been specified. The governmental politics concerning immigration, concealed in the media, has managed to establish a sense of fear and rejection towards Colombians. Therefore, the transmission of information focused mainly on criminal activities, in combination with the arguments of the Spanish government, has dominated national public opinion. Within this framework, the present study examines the image of the Colombian people, recreated in the Spanish press through the lexical and thematic content in their publications during the year 2011. The study centers on the keywords that represent the focus group, abbreviated here as C5: Colombia, colombiano, colombiana, colombianos and colombianas, and that conjure up a specific idea in the imagination of the readers. The objective of the present study is to identify, by means of a quantitative and qualitative analysis of the discourse, the patterns that lead to the creation of a partial image of the Colombian people, as well as to highlight the continuity of the same patterns, contrasting with the results of previous investigation about the C5. To achieve this goal, the corpus of the news articles (821,321 words) was compiled, extracted from the digital newspaper archives, these being amongst the diaries with the highest circulation in the Spanish territory. All the news articles were published between the 1st of January and the 31st of December of the year 2011. This corpus allowed us to analyze the contents of 1491 articles that mentioned in some way or another the variants of the C5. The analysis used methods appropriate in corpus linguistics as well as tools and approaches of content analysis (quantitative) and critical discourse analysis (qualitative). The theoretic framework is based mainly on studies about the role of journalism, the principal theories of Agenda Setting, Frame Theory, Relevance Theory, Language and Power, persuasion tools, control and manipulation, discourses that form ideologies, Operation LUDECO, stereotypes and critical discourse analysis. According to the study of the basic systems of shared beliefs, the organization of the representation of the Colombian people, with the connotation as mentioned before, in the imagination of the readers is still going on. In this sense, this may indicate the power the mass media exerts, the control and authority that are reflected in a discursive manner in the products of communication, and that this represents a way of direct reproduction of the power of the elite, of its control and abuse of power. / [ES] Desde hace más de dos décadas la imagen del pueblo colombiano se ha venido construyendo gota a gota. La atmosfera que ha encerrado su imagen y el universo léxico delimitado a temáticas especificas, han dictado el referente discursivo en los diarios españoles con patrones concretos, vinculados principalmente a la inmigración, crimen, sicariato y narcotráfico. Las constantes publicaciones de estas temáticas tendieron a resaltar características y manifestaciones de referente claramente negativo, donde la argumentación se elaboró desde la inestabilidad y la delincuencia. De esta forma, los diarios nacionales españoles centraron sus publicaciones, en su mayoría, a sucesos delictivos de colombianos en España que iban desde el robo hasta el asesinato, y de Colombia desde la pobreza hasta la violencia extrema, provocando una reacción directa en los imaginarios de los lectores y diseminando la representación de este colectivo como delincuentes, pobres y marginados víctimas de la guerra interna y victimarios por ser los narcotraficantes. La adjetivación y el señalamiento posibilitaron tener un referente claro con características concretas. Esta imagen acuñada en sus pensamientos permitió tener un referente de este colectivo, incluso en noticias donde no se señaló la nacionalidad del implicado. Las políticas de gobierno con referente a la inmigración, disimuladas a través de los medios, lograron instaurar un sentido de miedo y rechazo hacia el colectivo colombiano. De esta manera, la transmisión de información enfocada principalmente en hechos delictivos y bajo el argumento de los organismos de estado, se transformó en opinión pública nacional. Desde este marco referencial, el presente trabajo de investigación examina la imagen del pueblo colombiano recreado en los diarios españoles a través del uso léxico y temático de sus publicaciones en el 2011. El estudio se centra en palabras clave que representan a este pueblo (C5: Colombia, colombiano, colombiana, colombianos y colombianas) que concretan la idea en los imaginarios de los receptores. El análisis tiene como meta identificar, mediante el análisis discursivo cuantitativo y cualitativo, patrones que ayudan a la creación de una imagen parcializada del colombiano, como también resaltar la continuidad de los mismos patrones contrastando los resultados de los análisis con anteriores investigaciones realizadas hacia el C5. Para lograr este objetivo, el corpus de noticias periodísticas está constituído con unas 821,321 palabras, extraídas de las hemerotecas digitales de éstos dos diarios que están entre los de mayor tirada en el territorio español. Todas las noticias fueron publicadas entre el 1 enero y el 31 de diciembre de 2011. Este corpus nos permitió analizar las publicaciones de 1491 artículos donde se mencionó de alguna forma a las variantes de C5. Para concretar el fin, el método de análisis utilizó elementos de la lingüística del corpus, así como herramientas y enfoques propios del análisis de contenido (cuantitativo) y del análisis crítico del discurso (discursivo). El marco teórico se basó principalmente en estudios sobre el papel del periodismo, ideas principales de la Agenda setting, Teoría del encuadre (Frame), Teoría de la relevancia, Lengua y poder, Herramientas de persuasión, control y manipulación, Discurso formador de ideología, Operación LUDECO, Estereotipo, y del Análisis crítico del discurso. Conforme al estudio de los sistemas básicos de creencias compartidas, todavía se continúan organizando en el imaginario de los receptores la representación del colombiano enmarcado dentro de la connotación descrita anteriormente. En este sentido, esto sería solo una forma de indicar que el poder de los medios de comunicación ejerce un control y dominio que se refleja en lo discursivo en el trabajo de los productos comunicativos, y que podría representar una forma de reproducción directa del poder de la / [CA] Des de fa més de dos dècades la imatge del poble colombià s'ha construït gota a gota. L'atmosfera que ha tancat la seua imatge i l'univers lèxic delimitat a temàtiques específiques, han dictat el referent discursiu en els diaris espanyols amb patrons concrets, vinculats principalment a la immigració, crim, sicariat i narcotràfic. Les constants publicacions d'estes temàtiques van tendir a ressaltar característiques i manifestacions de referent clarament negatiu, on l'argumentació es va elaborar des de la inestabilitat i la delinqüència. D'esta manera, els diaris nacionals espanyols van centrar les seues publicacions, majoritàriament, a successos delictius de colombians a Espanya que anaven des del robatori fins a l'assassinat, i de Colòmbia des dela pobresa fins a la violència extrema, provocant una reacció directa en els imaginaris dels lectors i disseminant la representació d'este col.lectiu com a delinqüents, pobres i marginats víctimes de la guerra interna i victimaris per ser els narcotraficants. L'adjectivació i l'assenyalament van possibilitar tindre un referent clar amb característiques concretes. Estaimatge encunyada en els seus pensaments va permetre tindre un referent d'este col.lectiu, fins i tot en notícies on no es va assenyalar la nacionalitat de l'implicat. Les polítiques de govern amb referent a la immigració, dissimulades a través dels mitjans, van aconseguir instaurar un sentit de por i rebuig cap al col.lectiu colombià. D'aquesta manera, la transmissió d'informació enfocada principalment en fets delictius i sota l'argument dels organismes d'estat, es va transformar en opinió pública nacional. Des d'este marc referencial, el present treball d'investigació examina la imatge del poble colombià recreat als diaris espanyols a través de lús lèxic i temàtic deles seues publicacions en el 2011. L'estudi es centra en paraules clau que representen a este poble (C5: Colòmbia, colombià, colombiana, colombians i colombianes) que concreten la idea en els imaginaris dels receptors. L'anàlisi té com a meta identificar, mitjançant l'anàlisi discursiu quantitatiu i qualitatiu, patrons que ajuden a la creació d'una imatge parcialitzada del colombià, com tambéressaltar la continuïtat dels mateixos patrons contrastant els resultats de les anàlisis amb anteriors investigacions realitzades cap al C5. Per a aconseguir este objectiu, el corpus de notícies periodístiques està constituït amb unes 821,321 paraules, extretes de les hemeroteques digitals d'estos dos diaris que estan entre els de major tirada al territori espanyol. Totes les notícies van ser publicades entre l'1 de gener i el 31 de desembre de 2011. Este corpus ens va permetre analitzarles publicacions de 1491 articles on es va mencionar d'alguna manera a les variants de C5. Per a concretar el fi, el mètode d'anàlisi va utilitzar elements de la lingüística del corpus, així com ferramentes i enfocaments propis de l'anàlisi de contingut (quantitatiu) ide l'anàlisi crític del discurs (qualitatiu). El marc teòric es va basar principalment en estudis sobre el paper del periodisme, idees principals de l'Agenda setting, Teoria de l'enquadre (Frame), Teoria de la relevància, LLengua i poder, Ferramentes de persuasió, control i manipulació, Discurs formador de ideologia, Operació LUDECO, Estereotipus, i de l'Anàlisi crític del discurs. Conforme a l'estudi dels sistemes bàsics de creences compartides, encara es continuen organitzant en l'imaginari dels receptors la representació del colombià emmarcat dins de la connotació descrita anteriorment. En este sentit, açò seria només una forma d'indicar que el poder dels mitjans de comunicació exercix un controli domini que es reflexa en allò que és discursiu en el treball dels productes comunicatius, i que podria representar una forma de reproducció directa del poder de les elits, de domini i abús de poder. / Quijano Urreste, JF. (2016). Análisis de la imagen del pueblo colombiano en la prensa nacional española a través del léxico [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/68504

Emotion research is an important research topic, thus making the measurement of emotion in the workplace crucial. In attempting to study, understand and measure the role of emotions in the human condition, various researchers have identified different theoretical models to manage the information they have gathered and the observations they have made. In order to study or scientifically investigate any human behaviour, it is essential that such behaviour can be measured, if not quantitatively, then at least qualitatively. However, what one finds with regard to emotion research and measurement are two–dimensional models. The existing affect has been described with a choice of two dimensions and structures, i.e. circumplex, positive and negative affect, tense and energetic arousal, and eight combinations of pleasantness and activation. These two dimensions and structures measure a person’s experiences and, thereafter, report them. The question is if these two–dimensional emotion models are sufficient to cover the broad and often complex dynamics of emotions. The start of multiple–emotion dimension models were reported by researchers, who identified a three–dimensional structure in the emotion domain that is suggestive of the Evaluation–Potency– Activation (EPA) dimensions in the connotative or affective meaning of words. However, in recent studies the sufficiency of two–dimension models to comprehensively investigate emotions was questioned. The three–dimensional emotion model was replicated in cross–cultural similarity sorting studies by other researchers. The similarity sorting studies also indicate the importance of studying emotions in specific cultural contexts. Studying emotion in different cultures is especially relevant in a country such as South Africa that has a variety of cultures and eleven official languages. Researchers followed an approach that studied the meaning of emotion in different cultural groups in the context of 144 emotion features using a componential emotion theory approach. Researchers argue in the groundbreaking research that was published in Psychological Science that emotion meaning has more than only two dimensions. The approach postulated by researchers was tested in a student population of three language groups, namely Dutch–, Englishand French–speaking students. According to researchers this is an empirical and theoretical method to study the meaning of emotions across cultures. However, apart from studying the meaning of emotions in specific cultural groups, research also attempts to determine the meaning of emotion in the natural contexts in which they occur. The relevant natural contexts for the field of Industrial Psychology are the work contexts. It is therefore also important to investigate the categories of emotion episodes in the work environment. The general goal of this study was therefore a) to investigate the emotion lexicon in the white Afrikaans–speaking working adult language group, b) to determine the cognitive emotion structure of this cultural group, c) to investigate the meaning of emotion as comprehensively as possible (multidimensional models of the meaning of emotion), and d) to determine the meaning and content of emotion episodes in the workplace. Research Article 1 The research was subsequently presented in two independent phases. Firstly, a free listing of emotion terms was compiled, and secondly the emotion terms were prototypically rated by Afrikaans–speaking people in South Africa. Both of these were then used as measuring instruments. A survey was designed to explore the research objectives utilising availability samples in two studies. The participants in the free–listing (N=70) and in the prototypicality (N=70) study consisted of native Afrikaans–speaking employees. The sample consisted of participants from the white ethnic group speaking Afrikaans within the Eastern Cape, Gauteng, Free State, Mpumalanga, North–West and KZN provinces and use was made of an availability sample. After conducting the research, the emotion terms with the highest frequency, as identified during the first study, the free listing task, were to be happy (gelukkig wees), be sad (hartseer wees), love (liefde), anger (kwaad) and hateful (haatlik). The emotion terms with the lowest scores as identified during the free listing were uncomfortable (ongemaklik), painful (seer), be hurt (seergemaak wees), sympathetic (simpatiek) and shout/yell (skreeu). Correspondingly, the five (5) prototypical terms with the highest scores in Afrikaans were nice (lekker), fed–up/had enough (gatvol/“genoeg gehad”), loveable (liefdevol), anger (kwaad) and to be scared (om bang te wees). The five (5) least prototypical terms from the list generated in the free listing task were: unstable (onvas), bashfulness (skugterheid), captivation (geboeidheid), envy (naywer) and delight (opgetoënheid). From the information obtained in this research it was revealed that the emotion terms nice (lekker), fed up/had enough (gatvol/“genoeg gehad”) and loveable (liefdevol) are at this stage unique to the white Afrikaans language group. These terms had not been reported in any previously conducted prototypical studies. The results of this study contribute to a cross–cultural understanding of the emotion concepts within the Afrikaans–speaking language groups in South Africa. Research Article 2 A survey design was used to achieve the research objectives utilising availability samples in a series of one study. The participants of the Similarity study (N=131) consisted of native Afrikaans–speaking employees. The sample consisted of participants from the white ethnicity group speaking Afrikaans within the Eastern Cape, Gauteng, Free State, Mpumalanga, North– West, KZN and Northern Cape provinces and use was made of an availability sample. Results of Multidimensional Scaling revealed a three–dimensional cognitive emotion structure. The first dimension was the evaluation–pleasantness dimension. This dimension evaluates the pleasantness versus the unpleasantness of an emotion. This dimension is characterised by intrinsic appraisals of pleasantness and goal conduciveness and action tendencies of approach versus avoidance. The second dimension that emerged was a power–control dimension. This dimension is characterised by appraisals of control, how powerful or weak a person feels when a particular emotion is experienced. This includes feelings of dominance or submission, the impulse to act or withdraw and changes in speech and parasymphatic symptoms. The third dimension which emerged was an activation–arousal dimension. According to other researchers this arousal dimension is characterised by sympathetic arousal, e.g. rapid heartbeat and readiness for action. This study produced a cognitive emotion structure in a white Afrikaans–speaking working adult population in South Africa. To add value to the field of Industrial Psychology, the threedimension structure (evaluation–pleasantness, power–control and activation–arousal dimension) that was found, is very important and valuable when studying the meaning of emotion and can consequently be used as a reference for other emotion research constructs. If it is accurate as stated in literature, there are three and not only two emotion dimension structures, and researchers are missing out on a bigger picture for not drawing on the experience of emotion sufficiently. Research Article 3 A survey design and an availability sample (N=120) in the Eastern Cape, Free State and Gauteng provinces in South Africa was utilised for this study. The Meaning Grid was translated and backtranslated and adapted for use in Afrikaans. The Cronbach's alpha coefficients were obtained for the emotion terms. According to the results of the Meaning Grid instrument, the following emotion terms were the highest: disgust (afkeur) 0,95; pleasure (plesier) 0,94; stress (stres) 0,92; happiness (blydskap) 0,91; joy (vreugde) 0,91; fear (bang) 0,91; anger (angstig) 0,91 and hate (haat) 0,90. The emotion terms that scored the lowest with the Meaning Grid instrument were compassion (medelye) 0,79; pride (trots) 0,79 and contempt (minagting) 0,74. Out of the 24 emotion terms of the Meaning Grid instrument, 8 terms were above 0,90 and 13 were between 0,80 and 0,89. Only 3 terms were between 0,74 and 0,79 [compassion (medelye), pride (trots) and contempt (minagting)]. A three–factor solution was found which represented four emotion dimensions (evaluation, arousal/unpredictability and power) that were universal to the emotion structures found in European samples. Factor scores of the 24 Meaning Grid emotions indicate a three–factor solution that explained 62,2 % of the total variance. The first factor was labelled evaluation and explained 43,0% of the variance, the second factor was labelled arousal/unpredictability as it was a combination of arousal and unpredictability and explained 11,0% of the variance, and the third factor was labelled power and explained 8,2% of the variance. This study followed an approach that investigated the meaning structure of emotion in the sample group in the context of 144 emotion features using a componential emotion theory approach. Different researchers argued that emotion meaning has more than only two dimensions. A three–dimensional emotion structure was found that was universal to the emotion structures of three language groups in a European sample. Therefore, the meaning of emotions for this sample group is far more complex than the two–dimensional emotion models that are found in literature. According to the componential emotion theory approach, the 144 emotion features are very important building blocks for Industrial Psychology when studying the meaning of emotion. Research Article 4 A survey design was used in this research study. The Episode Meaning Grid was administered and participants reported on the two intense emotion experiences at work (in total 358 episodes). Employees rated their emotion experiences on features based on the componential emotion theory and also described the emotion events in their own words. The participants in the emotion episodes (N=179) study consisted of native white Afrikaans–speaking working adults. The sample consisted of participants from the white ethnicity group speaking Afrikaans within the Eastern Cape, Free State and North–West provinces and use was made of an availability sample. The results indicated a three–dimensional structure (evaluation–pleasantness, activation–arousal and power–control dimension) was identified within a white Afrikaans–speaking working adult language group. The first dimension was an evaluation–pleasantness dimension. The second dimension was an activation–arousal dimension. The third dimension was a power–control dimension. Regarding the reporting of emotion episodes one hundred and ninety seven respondents reported 84 satisfying emotion episodes and 267 less satisfying emotion episodes that took place at work. Nine different categories of episodes for satisfying emotions experienced were mentioned. It consists of behaviour of work colleagues, acts of boss/superior/management, goal achievement, receiving recognition, workplace policy, task recognition, personal incidents, emotion involvement and subordinate behaviour. The three highest categories of satisfying emotions episodes were “Goal Achievement” (N=31), “Receiving Recognition” (N=20) and “Personal Incidents” (N=10). Goal achievement describes situations where job related targets or goals were met, and receiving recognition refers to positive feedback from managers, supervisors and work colleagues on meeting targets. Nineteen different categories of episodes for less satisfying emotion episodes were mentioned. It consists of behaviour of work colleagues, acts of boss/superior/management, lack of goal achievement, lack of receiving recognition, workplace policy, task requirement, personal incidents, emotional involvement, subordinate behaviour, workload, work mistakes, customer behaviour, external environment, lack of control, physical well–being, involvement in disciplinary action, workplace strikes, wellness of colleagues and unfairness in the workplace. In the categories of less satisfying emotions episodes, the three highest were “Behaviour of Work Colleagues” (N=58), “Acts of Boss/Superior/Management” (N=47) and “Task Requirement” (N=33). The first two categories are appraised less satisfying behaviour towards oneself or others by work colleagues, managers, supervisors and customers. In terms of the categories of satisfying and less satisfying emotions episodes, less satisfying emotion episodes outnumbered satisfying emotions episodes by three to one. By making use of a multi–componential emotion model, the results confirm that the four factors of pleasantness, power, arousal, and unpredictability, in that order of importance, are essential to satisfactorily determine the emotion experience and meaning of emotion terms. A threedimensional emotion structure (evaluation, arousal and power) was found after determining the meaning of emotion in the natural contexts in which they occur. The answer to the question if these two–dimensional emotion models, as stated in literature, are sufficient to cover the broad and often complex dynamics of emotion, is certainly no. Recommendations for the organisation and future research were made. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

Emotion research is an important research topic, thus making the measurement of emotion in the workplace crucial. In attempting to study, understand and measure the role of emotions in the human condition, various researchers have identified different theoretical models to manage the information they have gathered and the observations they have made. In order to study or scientifically investigate any human behaviour, it is essential that such behaviour can be measured, if not quantitatively, then at least qualitatively. However, what one finds with regard to emotion research and measurement are two–dimensional models. The existing affect has been described with a choice of two dimensions and structures, i.e. circumplex, positive and negative affect, tense and energetic arousal, and eight combinations of pleasantness and activation. These two dimensions and structures measure a person’s experiences and, thereafter, report them. The question is if these two–dimensional emotion models are sufficient to cover the broad and often complex dynamics of emotions. The start of multiple–emotion dimension models were reported by researchers, who identified a three–dimensional structure in the emotion domain that is suggestive of the Evaluation–Potency– Activation (EPA) dimensions in the connotative or affective meaning of words. However, in recent studies the sufficiency of two–dimension models to comprehensively investigate emotions was questioned. The three–dimensional emotion model was replicated in cross–cultural similarity sorting studies by other researchers. The similarity sorting studies also indicate the importance of studying emotions in specific cultural contexts. Studying emotion in different cultures is especially relevant in a country such as South Africa that has a variety of cultures and eleven official languages. Researchers followed an approach that studied the meaning of emotion in different cultural groups in the context of 144 emotion features using a componential emotion theory approach. Researchers argue in the groundbreaking research that was published in Psychological Science that emotion meaning has more than only two dimensions. The approach postulated by researchers was tested in a student population of three language groups, namely Dutch–, Englishand French–speaking students. According to researchers this is an empirical and theoretical method to study the meaning of emotions across cultures. However, apart from studying the meaning of emotions in specific cultural groups, research also attempts to determine the meaning of emotion in the natural contexts in which they occur. The relevant natural contexts for the field of Industrial Psychology are the work contexts. It is therefore also important to investigate the categories of emotion episodes in the work environment. The general goal of this study was therefore a) to investigate the emotion lexicon in the white Afrikaans–speaking working adult language group, b) to determine the cognitive emotion structure of this cultural group, c) to investigate the meaning of emotion as comprehensively as possible (multidimensional models of the meaning of emotion), and d) to determine the meaning and content of emotion episodes in the workplace. Research Article 1 The research was subsequently presented in two independent phases. Firstly, a free listing of emotion terms was compiled, and secondly the emotion terms were prototypically rated by Afrikaans–speaking people in South Africa. Both of these were then used as measuring instruments. A survey was designed to explore the research objectives utilising availability samples in two studies. The participants in the free–listing (N=70) and in the prototypicality (N=70) study consisted of native Afrikaans–speaking employees. The sample consisted of participants from the white ethnic group speaking Afrikaans within the Eastern Cape, Gauteng, Free State, Mpumalanga, North–West and KZN provinces and use was made of an availability sample. After conducting the research, the emotion terms with the highest frequency, as identified during the first study, the free listing task, were to be happy (gelukkig wees), be sad (hartseer wees), love (liefde), anger (kwaad) and hateful (haatlik). The emotion terms with the lowest scores as identified during the free listing were uncomfortable (ongemaklik), painful (seer), be hurt (seergemaak wees), sympathetic (simpatiek) and shout/yell (skreeu). Correspondingly, the five (5) prototypical terms with the highest scores in Afrikaans were nice (lekker), fed–up/had enough (gatvol/“genoeg gehad”), loveable (liefdevol), anger (kwaad) and to be scared (om bang te wees). The five (5) least prototypical terms from the list generated in the free listing task were: unstable (onvas), bashfulness (skugterheid), captivation (geboeidheid), envy (naywer) and delight (opgetoënheid). From the information obtained in this research it was revealed that the emotion terms nice (lekker), fed up/had enough (gatvol/“genoeg gehad”) and loveable (liefdevol) are at this stage unique to the white Afrikaans language group. These terms had not been reported in any previously conducted prototypical studies. The results of this study contribute to a cross–cultural understanding of the emotion concepts within the Afrikaans–speaking language groups in South Africa. Research Article 2 A survey design was used to achieve the research objectives utilising availability samples in a series of one study. The participants of the Similarity study (N=131) consisted of native Afrikaans–speaking employees. The sample consisted of participants from the white ethnicity group speaking Afrikaans within the Eastern Cape, Gauteng, Free State, Mpumalanga, North– West, KZN and Northern Cape provinces and use was made of an availability sample. Results of Multidimensional Scaling revealed a three–dimensional cognitive emotion structure. The first dimension was the evaluation–pleasantness dimension. This dimension evaluates the pleasantness versus the unpleasantness of an emotion. This dimension is characterised by intrinsic appraisals of pleasantness and goal conduciveness and action tendencies of approach versus avoidance. The second dimension that emerged was a power–control dimension. This dimension is characterised by appraisals of control, how powerful or weak a person feels when a particular emotion is experienced. This includes feelings of dominance or submission, the impulse to act or withdraw and changes in speech and parasymphatic symptoms. The third dimension which emerged was an activation–arousal dimension. According to other researchers this arousal dimension is characterised by sympathetic arousal, e.g. rapid heartbeat and readiness for action. This study produced a cognitive emotion structure in a white Afrikaans–speaking working adult population in South Africa. To add value to the field of Industrial Psychology, the threedimension structure (evaluation–pleasantness, power–control and activation–arousal dimension) that was found, is very important and valuable when studying the meaning of emotion and can consequently be used as a reference for other emotion research constructs. If it is accurate as stated in literature, there are three and not only two emotion dimension structures, and researchers are missing out on a bigger picture for not drawing on the experience of emotion sufficiently. Research Article 3 A survey design and an availability sample (N=120) in the Eastern Cape, Free State and Gauteng provinces in South Africa was utilised for this study. The Meaning Grid was translated and backtranslated and adapted for use in Afrikaans. The Cronbach's alpha coefficients were obtained for the emotion terms. According to the results of the Meaning Grid instrument, the following emotion terms were the highest: disgust (afkeur) 0,95; pleasure (plesier) 0,94; stress (stres) 0,92; happiness (blydskap) 0,91; joy (vreugde) 0,91; fear (bang) 0,91; anger (angstig) 0,91 and hate (haat) 0,90. The emotion terms that scored the lowest with the Meaning Grid instrument were compassion (medelye) 0,79; pride (trots) 0,79 and contempt (minagting) 0,74. Out of the 24 emotion terms of the Meaning Grid instrument, 8 terms were above 0,90 and 13 were between 0,80 and 0,89. Only 3 terms were between 0,74 and 0,79 [compassion (medelye), pride (trots) and contempt (minagting)]. A three–factor solution was found which represented four emotion dimensions (evaluation, arousal/unpredictability and power) that were universal to the emotion structures found in European samples. Factor scores of the 24 Meaning Grid emotions indicate a three–factor solution that explained 62,2 % of the total variance. The first factor was labelled evaluation and explained 43,0% of the variance, the second factor was labelled arousal/unpredictability as it was a combination of arousal and unpredictability and explained 11,0% of the variance, and the third factor was labelled power and explained 8,2% of the variance. This study followed an approach that investigated the meaning structure of emotion in the sample group in the context of 144 emotion features using a componential emotion theory approach. Different researchers argued that emotion meaning has more than only two dimensions. A three–dimensional emotion structure was found that was universal to the emotion structures of three language groups in a European sample. Therefore, the meaning of emotions for this sample group is far more complex than the two–dimensional emotion models that are found in literature. According to the componential emotion theory approach, the 144 emotion features are very important building blocks for Industrial Psychology when studying the meaning of emotion. Research Article 4 A survey design was used in this research study. The Episode Meaning Grid was administered and participants reported on the two intense emotion experiences at work (in total 358 episodes). Employees rated their emotion experiences on features based on the componential emotion theory and also described the emotion events in their own words. The participants in the emotion episodes (N=179) study consisted of native white Afrikaans–speaking working adults. The sample consisted of participants from the white ethnicity group speaking Afrikaans within the Eastern Cape, Free State and North–West provinces and use was made of an availability sample. The results indicated a three–dimensional structure (evaluation–pleasantness, activation–arousal and power–control dimension) was identified within a white Afrikaans–speaking working adult language group. The first dimension was an evaluation–pleasantness dimension. The second dimension was an activation–arousal dimension. The third dimension was a power–control dimension. Regarding the reporting of emotion episodes one hundred and ninety seven respondents reported 84 satisfying emotion episodes and 267 less satisfying emotion episodes that took place at work. Nine different categories of episodes for satisfying emotions experienced were mentioned. It consists of behaviour of work colleagues, acts of boss/superior/management, goal achievement, receiving recognition, workplace policy, task recognition, personal incidents, emotion involvement and subordinate behaviour. The three highest categories of satisfying emotions episodes were “Goal Achievement” (N=31), “Receiving Recognition” (N=20) and “Personal Incidents” (N=10). Goal achievement describes situations where job related targets or goals were met, and receiving recognition refers to positive feedback from managers, supervisors and work colleagues on meeting targets. Nineteen different categories of episodes for less satisfying emotion episodes were mentioned. It consists of behaviour of work colleagues, acts of boss/superior/management, lack of goal achievement, lack of receiving recognition, workplace policy, task requirement, personal incidents, emotional involvement, subordinate behaviour, workload, work mistakes, customer behaviour, external environment, lack of control, physical well–being, involvement in disciplinary action, workplace strikes, wellness of colleagues and unfairness in the workplace. In the categories of less satisfying emotions episodes, the three highest were “Behaviour of Work Colleagues” (N=58), “Acts of Boss/Superior/Management” (N=47) and “Task Requirement” (N=33). The first two categories are appraised less satisfying behaviour towards oneself or others by work colleagues, managers, supervisors and customers. In terms of the categories of satisfying and less satisfying emotions episodes, less satisfying emotion episodes outnumbered satisfying emotions episodes by three to one. By making use of a multi–componential emotion model, the results confirm that the four factors of pleasantness, power, arousal, and unpredictability, in that order of importance, are essential to satisfactorily determine the emotion experience and meaning of emotion terms. A threedimensional emotion structure (evaluation, arousal and power) was found after determining the meaning of emotion in the natural contexts in which they occur. The answer to the question if these two–dimensional emotion models, as stated in literature, are sufficient to cover the broad and often complex dynamics of emotion, is certainly no. Recommendations for the organisation and future research were made. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

<p>Кулинарска лексика уопште, као и<br />кулинарска лексика Војводине није до сада<br />детаљније са лексичко семантичког и<br />творбеног аспекта обрађивана (осим у<br />појединим приказима наших дијелектолога и<br />лексикографа), али је свакако она (не у<br />потпуности) део српских важнијих<br />дијалекатских речника (Од Вукова до<br />Речника српских говора Војводине) и<br />речника општег типа.<br />У истраживачком раду је примењена у нас<br />одомаћена теорија семантичких поља руског<br />етнолингвисте Никите Толстоја. У лексичко<br />семантичкој и творбеној анализи као и у<br />лексикографској обради примењен је<br />дескриптивни, лингвогеографски и<br />компаративни метод.<br />Обрађено је шеснаест семантичких поља:<br />Намирнице, Оброци, Припремање хране,<br />Зимница, Млеко , млечни производи и јела<br />од млека, Супе и чорбе, Јела од теста,<br />Јела од јаја, Јела од меса, Месне<br />прерађевине, Врсте меса и делови, Умаци,<br />Јела од поврћа, Колачи, слаткиши, Пића,<br />Јела приликом разних светковина.<br />Материјал је и лексикографски уобличен, а<br />потом картографисан.</p> / <p>Kulinarska leksika uopšte, kao i<br />kulinarska leksika Vojvodine nije do sada<br />detaljnije sa leksičko semantičkog i<br />tvorbenog aspekta obrađivana (osim u<br />pojedinim prikazima naših dijelektologa i<br />leksikografa), ali je svakako ona (ne u<br />potpunosti) deo srpskih važnijih<br />dijalekatskih rečnika (Od Vukova do<br />Rečnika srpskih govora Vojvodine) i<br />rečnika opšteg tipa.<br />U istraživačkom radu je primenjena u nas<br />odomaćena teorija semantičkih polja ruskog<br />etnolingviste Nikite Tolstoja. U leksičko<br />semantičkoj i tvorbenoj analizi kao i u<br />leksikografskoj obradi primenjen je<br />deskriptivni, lingvogeografski i<br />komparativni metod.<br />Obrađeno je šesnaest semantičkih polja:<br />Namirnice, Obroci, Pripremanje hrane,<br />Zimnica, Mleko , mlečni proizvodi i jela<br />od mleka, Supe i čorbe, Jela od testa,<br />Jela od jaja, Jela od mesa, Mesne<br />prerađevine, Vrste mesa i delovi, Umaci,<br />Jela od povrća, Kolači, slatkiši, Pića,<br />Jela prilikom raznih svetkovina.<br />Materijal je i leksikografski uobličen, a<br />potom kartografisan.</p> / <p>Culinary lexicon as such, as well as the<br />culinary lexicon of Vojvodina Region has so far<br />not been systematically examined in the lexicosemantic<br />and word-formation aspect (except for<br />some reviews of our dialectologists and lexicographers). However, it is (yet not</p><p>completely) a part of some major Serbian<br />dialect dictionaries (from Rječnik, a dictionary<br />by Vuk Stefanović Karadžić to Dictionary of<br />Serbian Vojvodina Speech) as well as the<br />range of general dictionaries.<br />The research implied the semantic field<br />theory developed by Russian ethno-linguist<br />Nikita Tolstoy, which is commonly applied<br />approach in our region. Lexico-semantic and<br />word-formation analysis as well as<br />lexicographic processing were performed<br />applying descriptive and linguo-geographic<br />methods.<br />Sixteen semantic fields were analyzed:<br />Foodstuffs; Meals; Food Preparation; Winter<br />Stores; Milk; Dairy Products and Dishes; Soups<br />and Stocks; Pasta and Savory Dishes; Egg<br />Dishes; Meat Dishes; Meat Products; Meat<br />Types and Cuts; Sauces; Vegetable Dishes;<br />Cakes, Cookies and Sweets; Drinks and<br />Beverages; Festive Foods. The material was<br />lexicographically edited and cartographed.</p>