Site characterization is an important task in Geotechnical Engineering. In situ tests based on standard penetration test (SPT), cone penetration test (CPT) and shear wave velocity survey are popular among geotechnical engineers. Site characterization using any of these properties based on finite number of in-situ test data is an imperative task in probabilistic site characterization. These methods have been used to design future soil sampling programs for the site and to specify the soil stratification. It is never possible to know the geotechnical properties at every location beneath an actual site because, in order to do so, one would need to sample and/or test the entire subsurface profile. Therefore, the main objective of site characterization models is to predict the subsurface soil properties with minimum in-situ test data. The prediction of soil property is a difficult task due to the uncertainities. Spatial variability, measurement ‘noise’, measurement and model bias, and statistical error due to limited measurements are the sources of uncertainities. Liquefaction in soil is one of the other major problems in geotechnical earthquake engineering. It is defined as the transformation of a granular material from a solid to a liquefied state as a consequence of increased pore-water pressure and reduced effective stress. The generation of excess pore pressure under undrained loading conditions is a hallmark of all liquefaction phenomena. This phenomena was brought to the attention of engineers more so after Niigata(1964) and Alaska(1964) earthquakes. Liquefaction will cause building settlement or tipping, sand boils, ground cracks, landslides, dam instability, highway embankment failures, or other hazards. Such damages are generally of great concern to public safety and are of economic significance. Site-spefific evaluation of liquefaction susceptibility of sandy and silty soils is a first step in liquefaction hazard assessment. Many methods (intelligent models and simple methods as suggested by Seed and Idriss, 1971) have been suggested to evaluate liquefaction susceptibility based on the large data from the sites where soil has been liquefied / not liquefied. The rapid advance in information processing systems in recent decades directed engineering research towards the development of intelligent models that can model natural phenomena automatically. In intelligent model, a process of training is used to build up a model of the particular system, from which it is hoped to deduce responses of the system for situations that have yet to be observed. Intelligent models learn the input output relationship from the data itself. The quantity and quality of the data govern the performance of intelligent model. The objective of this study is to develop intelligent models [geostatistic, artificial neural network(ANN) and support vector machine(SVM)] to estimate corrected standard penetration test (SPT) value, Nc, in the three dimensional (3D) subsurface of Bangalore. The database consists of 766 boreholes spread over a 220 sq km area, with several SPT N values (uncorrected blow counts) in each of them. There are total 3015 N values in the 3D subsurface of Bangalore. To get the corrected blow counts, Nc, various corrections such as for overburden stress, size of borehole, type of sampler, hammer energy and length of connecting rod have been applied on the raw N values. Using a large database of Nc values in the 3D subsurface of Bangalore, three geostatistical models (simple kriging, ordinary kriging and disjunctive kriging) have been developed. Simple and ordinary kriging produces linear estimator whereas, disjunctive kriging produces nonlinear estimator. The knowledge of the semivariogram of the Nc data is used in the kriging theory to estimate the values at points in the subsurface of Bangalore where field measurements are not available. The capability of disjunctive kriging to be a nonlinear estimator and an estimator of the conditional probability is explored. A cross validation (Q1 and Q2) analysis is also done for the developed simple, ordinary and disjunctive kriging model. The result indicates that the performance of the disjunctive kriging model is better than simple as well as ordinary kriging model. This study also describes two ANN modelling techniques applied to predict Nc data at any point in the 3D subsurface of Bangalore. The first technique uses four layered feed-forward backpropagation (BP) model to approximate the function, Nc=f(x, y, z) where x, y, z are the coordinates of the 3D subsurface of Bangalore. The second technique uses generalized regression neural network (GRNN) that is trained with suitable spread(s) to approximate the function, Nc=f(x, y, z). In this BP model, the transfer function used in first and second hidden layer is tansig and logsig respectively. The logsig transfer function is used in the output layer. The maximum epoch has been set to 30000. A Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm has been used for BP model. The performance of the models obtained using both techniques is assessed in terms of prediction accuracy. BP ANN model outperforms GRNN model and all kriging models. SVM model, which is firmly based on the theory of statistical learning theory, uses regression technique by introducing -insensitive loss function has been also adopted to predict Nc data at any point in 3D subsurface of Bangalore. The SVM implements the structural risk minimization principle (SRMP), which has been shown to be superior to the more traditional empirical risk minimization principle (ERMP) employed by many of the other modelling techniques. The present study also highlights the capability of SVM over the developed geostatistic models (simple kriging, ordinary kriging and disjunctive kriging) and ANN models. Further in this thesis, Liquefaction susceptibility is evaluated from SPT, CPT and Vs data using BP-ANN and SVM. Intelligent models (based on ANN and SVM) are developed for prediction of liquefaction susceptibility using SPT data from the 1999 Chi-Chi earthquake, Taiwan. Two models (MODEL I and MODEL II) are developed. The SPT data from the work of Hwang and Yang (2001) has been used for this purpose. In MODEL I, cyclic stress ratio (CSR) and corrected SPT values (N1)60 have been used for prediction of liquefaction susceptibility. In MODEL II, only peak ground acceleration (PGA) and (N1)60 have been used for prediction of liquefaction susceptibility. Further, the generalization capability of the MODEL II has been examined using different case histories available globally (global SPT data) from the work of Goh (1994). This study also examines the capabilities of ANN and SVM to predict the liquefaction susceptibility of soils from CPT data obtained from the 1999 Chi-Chi earthquake, Taiwan. For determination of liquefaction susceptibility, both ANN and SVM use the classification technique. The CPT data has been taken from the work of Ku et al.(2004). In MODEL I, cone tip resistance (qc) and CSR values have been used for prediction of liquefaction susceptibility (using both ANN and SVM). In MODEL II, only PGA and qc have been used for prediction of liquefaction susceptibility. Further, developed MODEL II has been also applied to different case histories available globally (global CPT data) from the work of Goh (1996). Intelligent models (ANN and SVM) have been also adopted for liquefaction susceptibility prediction based on shear wave velocity (Vs). The Vs data has been collected from the work of Andrus and Stokoe (1997). The same procedures (as in SPT and CPT) have been applied for Vs also. SVM outperforms ANN model for all three models based on SPT, CPT and Vs data. CPT method gives better result than SPT and Vs for both ANN and SVM models. For CPT and SPT, two input parameters {PGA and qc or (N1)60} are sufficient input parameters to determine the liquefaction susceptibility using SVM model. In this study, an attempt has also been made to evaluate geotechnical site characterization by carrying out in situ tests using different in situ techniques such as CPT, SPT and multi channel analysis of surface wave (MASW) techniques. For this purpose a typical site was selected wherein a man made homogeneous embankment and as well natural ground has been met. For this typical site, in situ tests (SPT, CPT and MASW) have been carried out in different ground conditions and the obtained test results are compared. Three CPT continuous test profiles, fifty-four SPT tests and nine MASW test profiles with depth have been carried out for the selected site covering both homogeneous embankment and natural ground. Relationships have been developed between Vs, (N1)60 and qc values for this specific site. From the limited test results, it was found that there is a good correlation between qc and Vs. Liquefaction susceptibility is evaluated using the in situ test data from (N1)60, qc and Vs using ANN and SVM models. It has been shown to compare well with “Idriss and Boulanger, 2004” approach based on SPT test data. SVM model has been also adopted to determine over consolidation ratio (OCR) based on piezocone data. Sensitivity analysis has been performed to investigate the relative importance of each of the input parameters. SVM model outperforms all the available methods for OCR prediction.

Fine grained sediment deposition in urban environments during natural hazard events can impact critical infrastructure and properties (urban terrain) leading to reduced social and economic function and potentially adverse public health effects. Therefore, clean-up of the sediments is required to minimise impacts and restore social and economic functionality as soon as possible. The strategies employed to manage and coordinate the clean-up significantly influence the speed, cost and quality of the clean-up operation. Additionally, the physical properties of the fine grained sediment affects the clean-up, transport, storage and future usage of the sediment. The goals of the research are to assess the resources, time and cost required for fine grained sediment clean-up in an urban environment following a disaster and to determine how the geotechnical properties of sediment will affect urban clean-up strategies. The thesis focuses on the impact of fine grained sediment (<1 mm) deposition from three liquefaction events during the Canterbury earthquake sequence (2010-2011) on residential suburbs and transport networks in Christchurch. It also presents how geotechnical properties of the material may affect clean-up strategies and methods by presenting geotechnical analysis of tephra material from the North Island of New Zealand. Finally, lessons for disaster response planning and decision making for clean-up of sediment in urban environments are presented. A series of semi-structured interviews of key stakeholders supported by relevant academic literature and media reports were used to record the clean-up operation coordination and management and to make a preliminary qualification of the Christchurch liquefaction ejecta clean-up (costs breakdown, time, volume, resources, coordination, planning and priorities). Further analysis of the costs and resources involved for better accuracy was required and so the analysis of Christchurch City Council road management database (RAMM) was done. In order to make a transition from general fine sediment clean-up to specific types of fine disaster sediment clean-up, adequate information about the material properties is required as they will define how the material will be handled, transported and stored. Laboratory analysis of young volcanic tephra from the New Zealand’s North Island was performed to identify their geotechnical properties (density, granulometry, plasticity, composition and angle of repose). The major findings of this research were that emergency planning and the use of the coordinated incident management system (CIMS) system during the emergency were important to facilitate rapid clean-up tasking, management of resources and ultimately recovery from widespread and voluminous liquefaction ejecta deposition in eastern Christchurch. A total estimated cost of approximately $NZ 40 million was calculated for the Christchurch City clean-up following the 2010-2011 Canterbury earthquake sequence with a partial cost of $NZ 12 million for the Southern part of the city, where up to 33% (418 km) of the road network was impacted by liquefaction ejecta and required clearing of the material following the 22 February 2011 earthquake. Over 500,000 tonnes of ejecta has been stockpiled at Burwood landfill for all three liquefaction inducing earthquake events. The average cost per kilometre for the event clean-up was $NZ 5,500/km (4 September 2010), $NZ 11,650/km (22 February 2011) and $NZ 11,185/km (13 June 2011). The duration of clean-up time of residential properties and the road network was approximately two to three months for each of the three liquefaction ejecta events; despite events volumes and spatial distribution of ejecta. Interviews and quantitative analysis of RAMM data revealed that the experience and knowledge gained from the Darfield earthquake (4 September 2010) clean-up increased the efficiency of the following Christchurch earthquake induced liquefaction ejecta clean-up events. Density, particle size, particle shape, clay content and moisture content, are the important geotechnical properties that need to be considered when planning for a clean-up method that incorporates collection, transport and disposal or storage. The geotechnical properties for the tephra samples were analysed to increase preparedness and reaction response of potentially affected North Island cities from possible product from the active volcanoes in their region. The geotechnical results from this study show that volcanic tephra could be used in road or construction material but the properties would have to be further investigated for a New Zealand context. Using fresh volcanic material in road, building or flood control construction requires good understanding of the material properties and precaution during design and construction to extra care, but if well planned, it can be economically beneficial.

Mankind is facing the problem due to earthquake hazard since prehistoric times. Many of the developed and developing countries are under constant threats from earthquakes hazards. Theories of plate tectonics and engineering seismology have helped to understand earthquakes and also to predicate earthquake hazards on a regional scale. However, the regional scale hazard mapping in terms of seismic zonation has been not fully implemented in many of the developing countries like India. Agglomerations of large population in the Indian cities and poor constructions have raised the risk due to various possible seismic hazards. First and foremost step towards hazard reduction is estimation of the seismic hazards in regional scale. Objective of this study is to estimate the seismic hazard parameters for Lucknow, a part of Indo-Gangetic Basin (IGB) and develop regional scale microzonation map. Lucknow is a highly populated city which is located close to the active seismic belt of Himalaya. This belt came into existence during the Cenozoic era (40-50 million years ago) and is a constant source of seismic threats. Many of the devastating earthquakes which have happened since prehistoric times such as 1255 Nepal, 1555 Srinagar, 1737 Kolkata, 1803 Nepal, 1833 Kathmandu, 1897 Shillong, 1905 Kangra, 1934 Bihar-Nepal, 1950 Assam and 2005 Kashmir. Historic evidences show that many of these earthquakes had caused fatalities even up to 0.1 million. At present, in the light of building up strains and non-occurrence of a great event in between 1905 Kangra earthquake and 1934 Bihar-Nepal earthquake regions the stretch has been highlighted as central seismic gap. This location may have high potential of great earthquakes in the near future. Geodetic studies in these locations indicate a possible slip of 9.5 m which may cause an event of magnitude 8.7 on Richter scale in the central seismic gap. Lucknow, the capital of Uttar Pradesh has a population of 2.8 million as per Census 2011. It lies in ZONE III as per IS1893: 2002 and can be called as moderate seismic region. However, the city falls within 350 km radial distance from Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and active regional seismic source of the Lucknow-Faizabad fault. Considering the ongoing seismicity of Himalayan region and the Lucknow-Faizabad fault, this city is under high seismic threat. Hence a comprehensive study of understanding the earthquake hazards on a regional scale for the Lucknow is needed. In this work the seismic microzonation of Lucknow has been attempted. The whole thesis is divided into 11 chapters. A detailed discussion on the importance of this study, seismicity of Lucknow, and methodology adopted for detailed seismic hazard assessment and microzonation are presented in first three chapters. Development of region specific Ground Motion Prediction Equation (GMPE) and seismic hazard estimation at bedrock level using highly ranked GMPEs are presented in Chapters 4 and 5 respectively. Subsurface lithology, measurement of dynamic soil properties and correlations are essential to assess region specific site effects and liquefaction potential. Discussion on the experimental studies, subsurface profiling using geotechnical and geophysical tests results and correlation between shear wave velocity (SWV) and standard penetration test (SPT) N values are presented in Chapter 6. Detailed shear wave velocity profiling with seismic site classification and ground response parameters considering multiple ground motion data are discussed in Chapters 7 and 8. Chapters 9 and 10 present the assessment of liquefaction potential and determination of hazard index with microzonation maps respectively. Conclusions derived from each chapter are presented in Chapter 11. A brief summary of the work is presented below: Attenuation relations or GMPEs are important component of any seismic hazard analysis which controls accurate prediction of the hazard values. Even though the Himalayas have experienced great earthquakes since ancient times, suitable GMPEs which are applicable for a wide range of distance and magnitude are limited. Most of the available regional GMPEs were developed considering limited recorded data and/or pure synthetic ground motion data. This chapter presents development of a regional GMPE considering both the recorded as well as synthetic ground motions. In total 14 earthquakes consisting of 10 events with recorded data and 4 historic events with Isoseismal maps are used for the same. Synthetic ground motions based on finite fault model have been generated at unavailable locations for recorded events and complete range distances for historic earthquakes. Model parameters for synthetic ground motion were arrived by detailed parametric study and from literatures. A concept of Apparent Stations (AS) has been used to generate synthetic ground motion in a wide range of distance as well as direction around the epicenter. Synthetic ground motion data is validated by comparing with available recorded data and peak ground acceleration (PGA) from Isoseismal maps. A new GMPE has been developed based on two step stratified regression procedure considering the combined dataset of recorded and synthetic ground motions. The new GMPE is validated by comparing with three recently recorded earthquakes events. GMPE proposed in this study is capable of predicting PGA values close to recorded data and spectral acceleration up to period of 2 seconds. Comparison of new GMPE with the recorded data of recent earthquakes shows a good matching of ground motion as well as response spectra. The new GMPE is applicable for wide range of earthquake magnitudes from 5 to 9 on Mw scale. Reduction of future earthquake hazard is possible if hazard values are predicted precisely. A detailed seismic hazard analysis is carried out in this study considering deterministic and probabilistic approaches. New seismotectonic map has been generated for Lucknow considering a radial distance of 350 km around the city centre, which also covers active Himalayan plate boundaries. Past earthquakes within the seismotectonic region have been collected from United State Geological Survey (USGS), Northern California Earthquake Data Centre (NCEDC), Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), Seismic Atlas of India and its Environs (SEISAT) etc. A total of 1831 events with all the magnitude range were obtained. Collected events were homogenized, declustered and filtered for Mw ≥ 4 events. A total of 496 events were found within the seismic study region. Well delineated seismic sources are compiled from SEISAT. Superimposing the earthquake catalogue on the source map, a seismotectonic map of Lucknow was generated. A total of 47 faults which have experienced earthquake magnitude of 4 and above are found which are used for seismic hazard analysis. Based on the distribution of earthquake events on the seismotectonic map, two regions have been identified. Region I which shows high density of seismic events in the area in and around of Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and Region II which consists of area surrounding Lucknow with sparse distribution of earthquake events. Data completeness analysis and estimation of seismic parameter “a” and “b” are carried out separately for both the regions. Based on the analysis, available earthquake data is complete for a period of 80 years in both the regions. Using the complete data set, the regional recurrence relations have been developed. It shows a “b” value of 0.86 for region I and 0.9 for Region II which are found comparable with earlier studies. Maximum possible earthquake magnitude in each source has been estimated using observed magnitude and doubly truncated Gutenberg-Richter relation. The study area of Lucknow is divided into 0.015o x 0.015o grid size and PGA at each grid has been estimated by considering all sources and the three GMPEs. A Matlab code was generated for seismic hazard analysis and maximum PGA value at each grid point was determined and mapped. Deterministic seismic hazard analysis (DSHA) shows that maximum expected PGA values at bedrock level varies from 0.05g in the eastern part to 0.13g in the northern region. Response spectrum at city centre is also developed up to a period of 2 seconds. Further, Probabilistic seismic hazard analysis (PSHA) has been carried out and PGA values for 10 % and 2 % probability of exceedence in 50 years have been estimated and mapped. PSHA for 10 % probability shows PGA variation from 0.035g in the eastern parts to 0.07g in the western and northern parts of Lucknow. Similarly PSHA for 2 % probability of exceedence indicates PGA variation from 0.07g in the eastern parts while the northern parts are expecting PGA of 0.13g. Uniform hazard spectra are also developed for 2 % and 10 % probability for a period of up to 2 seconds. The seismic hazard analyses in this study show that the northern and western parts of Lucknow are more vulnerable when compared to other part. Bedrock hazard values completely change due to subsoil properties when it reaches the surface. A detailed geophysical and geotechnical investigation has been carried out for subsoil profiling and seismic site classification. The study area has been divided into grids of 2 km x 2 km and roughly one geophysical test using MASW (Multichannel Analysis Surface Wave) has been carried out in each grid and the shear wave velocity (SWV) profiles of subsoil layers are obtained. A total of 47 MASW tests have been carried out and which are uniformly distributed in Lucknow. In addition, 12 boreholes have also been drilled with necessary sampling and measurement of N-SPT values at 1.5 m interval till a depth of 30 m. Further, 11 more borelog reports are collected from the same agency hired for drilling the boreholes. Necessary laboratory tests are conducted on disturbed and undisturbed soil samples for soil classification and density measurement. Based on the subsoil informations obtained from these boreholes, two cross-sections up to a depth of 30 m have been generated. These cross-sections show the presence of silty sand in the top 10 m at most of the locations followed by clayey sand of low to medium compressibility till a depth of 30 m. In between the sand and clay traces of silt were also been found in many locations. In addition to these boreholes, 20 deeper boreholes (depth ≥150 m) are collected from Jal Nigam (Water Corporation) Lucknow, Government of Uttar Pradesh. Typical cross-section along the alignment of these deeper boreholes has been generated up to 150 m depth. This cross-section shows the presence of fine sand near Gomati while other locations are occupied by surface clayey sand. Also, the medium sand has been found in the western part of the city at a depth of 110 m which continues till 150 m depth. On careful examination of MASW and boreholes with N-SPT, 17 locations are found very close and SWV and N-SPT values are available up to 30 m depth. These SWV and N-SPT values are complied and used to develop correlations between SWV and N-SPT for sandy soil, clayey soil and all soil types. This correlation is the first correlation for IGB soil deposits considered measured data up to 30 m. The new correlation is verified graphically using normal consistency ratio and standard percentage error with respect to measured N-SPT and SWV. Further, SWV and N-SPT profiles are used Another important earthquake induced hazard is liquefaction. Even though many historic earthquakes caused liquefaction in India, very limited attempt has been made to map liquefaction potential in IGB. In this study, a detailed liquefaction analysis has been carried out for Lucknow a part of Ganga Basin to map liquefaction potential. Initially susceptibility of liquefaction for soil deposits has been assessed by comparing the grain size distribution curve obtained from laboratory tests with the range of grain size distribution for potentially liquefiable soils. Most of surface soil deposits in the study area are susceptible to liquefaction. At all the 23 borehole locations, measured N-SPT values are corrected for (a) Overburden Pressure (CN), (b) Hammer energy (CE), (c) Borehole diameter (CB), (d) presence or absence of liner (CS), (e) Rod length (CR) and (f) fines content (Cfines). Surface PGA values at each borehole locations are used to estimate Cyclic Stress Ratio (CSR). Corrected N-SPT values [(N1)60CS] are used to estimate Cyclic Resistance Ratio (CRR) at each layer. CSR and CRR values are used to estimate Factor of Safety (FOS) against liquefaction in each layer. Least factor safety values are indentified from each location and presented liquefaction factor of safety map for average and maximum amplified PGA values. These maps highlight that northern, western and central parts of Lucknow are very critical to critical against liquefaction while southern parts shows moderate to low critical area. The entire alignment of river Gomati falls in very critical to critical regions for liquefaction. Least FOS shows worst scenario and does not account thickness of liquefiable soil layers. Further, these FOS values are used to determine Liquefaction Potential Index (LPI) of each site and developed LPI map. Based on LPI map, the Gomati is found as high to very high liquefaction potential region. Southern and the central parts of Lucknow show low to moderate liquefaction potential while the northern and western Lucknow has moderate to high liquefaction potential. All possible seismic hazards maps for Lucknow have been combined to develop final microzonation map in terms of hazard index values. Hazard index maps are prepared by combining rock PGA map, site classification map in terms of shear wave velocity, amplification factor map, and FOS map and predominant period map by adopting Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP). All these parameters have been given here in the order starting with maximum weight of 6 for PGA to lower weight of 1 for predominant frequency. Normalized weights of each parameter have been estimated. Depending upon the variation of each hazard parameter values, three to five ranks are assigned and the normalized ranks are calculated. Final hazard index values have been estimated by multiplying normalized ranks of each parameter with the normalized weights. Microzonation map has been generated by mapping hazard index values. Three maps were generated based on DSHA, PSHA for 2% and 10 % probability of exceedence in 50 years. Hazard index maps from DSHA and PSHA for 2 % probability show similar pattern. Higher hazard index were obtained in northern and western parts of Lucknow and lower values in others. The new microzonation maps can help in dividing the Lucknow into three parts as high area i.e. North western part, moderate hazard area i.e. central part and low hazard area which covers southern and eastern parts of Lucknow. This microzonation is different from the current seismic code where all area is lumped in one zone without detailed assessment of different earthquake hazard parameters. Finally this study brings out first region specific GMPE considering recorded and synthetic ground monitions for wide range of magnitudes and distances. Proposed GMPE can also be used in other part of the Himalayan region as it matches well with the highly ranked GMPEs. Detailed rock level PGA map has been generated for Lucknow considering DSHA and PSHA. A detailed geotechnical and geophysical experiments are carried out in Lucknow. These results are used to develop correction between SWV and N-SPT values for soil deposit in IGB and site classification maps for the study area. Amplification and liquefaction potential of Lucknow are estimated by considering multiple ground motions data to account different earthquake ground motion amplitude, duration and frequency, which is unique in the seismic microzonation study.

The Canterbury Earthquakes of 2010-2011, in particular the 4th September 2010 Darfield earthquake and the 22nd February 2011 Christchurch earthquake, produced severe and widespread liquefaction in Christchurch and surrounding areas. The scale of the liquefaction was unprecedented, and caused extensive damage to a variety of man-made structures, including residential houses. Around 20,000 residential houses suffered serious damage as a direct result of the effects of liquefaction, and this resulted in approximately 7000 houses in the worst-hit areas being abandoned. Despite the good performance of light timber-framed houses under the inertial loads of the earthquake, these structures could not withstand the large loads and deformations associated with liquefaction, resulting in significant damage. The key structural component of houses subjected to liquefaction effects was found to be their foundations, as these are in direct contact with the ground. The performance of house foundations directly influenced the performance of the structure as a whole. Because of this, and due to the lack of research in this area, it was decided to investigate the performance of houses and in particular their foundations when subjected to the effects of liquefaction. The data from the inspections of approximately 500 houses conducted by a University of Canterbury summer research team following the 4th September 2010 earthquake in the worst-hit areas of Christchurch were analysed to determine the general performance of residential houses when subjected to high liquefaction loads. This was followed by the detailed inspection of around 170 houses with four different foundation types common to Christchurch and New Zealand: Concrete perimeter with short piers constructed to NZS3604, concrete slab-on-grade also to NZS3604, RibRaft slabs designed by Firth Industries and driven pile foundations. With a focus on foundations, floor levels and slopes were measured, and the damage to all areas of the house and property were recorded. Seven invasive inspections were also conducted on houses being demolished, to examine in more detail the deformation modes and the causes of damage in severely affected houses. The simplified modelling of concrete perimeter sections subjected to a variety of liquefaction-related scenarios was also performed, to examine the comparative performance of foundations built in different periods, and the loads generated under various bearing loss and lateral spreading cases. It was found that the level of foundation damage is directly related to the level of liquefaction experienced, and that foundation damage and liquefaction severity in turn influence the performance of the superstructure. Concrete perimeter foundations were found to have performed most poorly, suffering high local floor slopes and being likely to require foundation repairs even when liquefaction was low enough that no surface ejecta was seen. This was due to their weak, flexible foundation structure, which cannot withstand liquefaction loads without deforming. The vulnerability of concrete perimeter foundations was confirmed through modelling. Slab-on-grade foundations performed better, and were unlikely to require repairs at low levels of liquefaction. Ribraft and piled foundations performed the best, with repairs unlikely up to moderate levels of liquefaction. However, all foundation types were susceptible to significant damage at higher levels of liquefaction, with maximum differential settlements of 474mm, 202mm, 182mm and 250mm found for concrete perimeter, slab-on-grade, ribraft and piled foundations respectively when subjected to significant lateral spreading, the most severe loading scenario caused by liquefaction. It was found through the analysis of the data that the type of exterior wall cladding, either heavy or light, and the number of storeys, did not affect the performance of foundations. This was also shown through modelling for concrete perimeter foundations, and is due to the increased foundation strengths provided for heavily cladded and two-storey houses. Heavy roof claddings were found to increase the demands on foundations, worsening their performance. Pre-1930 concrete perimeter foundations were also found to be very vulnerable to damage under liquefaction loads, due to their weak and brittle construction.

Recently observed cumulation of unexpected collapses of slope-distant waste dumps in lignite mining areas of eastern germany re-initiated research of soil liquefaction. Especially it turned the question of internal initials that correspond to water rise. Parallel to laboritory tests and field experiments a micromechanical model should be developed, which can reproduce processes in the soil during saturation. In first approximation a partly saturated soil consists of two phases: the soil particles and the pore fluid. For micromechanical modeling a coupling of discontinuum particles) and continuum (fluid) is required. The soil particles can be simulated with the Discrete-Element-Method (DEM). For the pore fluid, which is assumed to be a mixture of liquid and gaseous fractions, Pore scale model with Finite Volumes (PFV) is used. At low water content liquid bridges (meniscii) arise between the particles that cause an apparent cohesion. The effect of the meniscii is considered by a correspondingly contact law in the DEM model. During the saturation of a soil both, cohesive effect and fluid bulk modulus, are reduced. In addition buoyancy acts on the particles during the process. The micromechanical modeling approach has the advantage, that just a few model parameters are needed. The numerical model shows pore fluid pressures during saturation process, that leads to a reduction of effective stress. It is investigated how much the reduction is regarding porosity, degree of saturation, stress conditions and grain shape. Furthermore the influence of model parameters as well as hydromechanics is investigated. The investigations are completed with another series of experiments under special conditions like integration of macropores, horizontal fixed model boundaries and abrupt saturation.

O desejo por energia aumenta à medida que o número de pessoas cresce e o aumento de seu padrão de vida conduz a maiores demandas para conforto. Para atender a este desafio, torna-se fundamental trazer novas fontes de suprimento de energia para o mercado. Estas precisam atender a critérios cada vez mais restritos de sustentabilidade. Abundantes recursos de gás natural estão geograficamente distribuídos ao longo da costa do Sudeste do Brasil, na região conhecida como polígono do Pré-Sal. No entanto, avanços crescentes em tecnologia são requeridas para trazer esse gás natural com eficiência às pessoas que precisam dele. A liquefação e transporte em pequena e média escala surge como opção estudada neste trabalho. A partir do ano 2000, o mundo testemunhou um aumento no interesse pela entrega do Gás Natural Liquefeito (GNL) diretamente ao consumidor. O gás natural representa cerca de 1/4 da demanda global de energia, 10% do qual é fornecido na forma de GNL. O GNL assume rapidamente um papel importante nas perspectivas energéticas mundiais uma vez que cresceu mais rápido do que qualquer outra fonte de gás - a uma média de 7% ao ano entre 2000 e 2015. A dissertação apresenta uma visão geral dos números do gás natural no Brasil, e no mundo, assim como uma revisão do mercado mundial de GNL identificando o crescente interesse por soluções de pequena e média escala (Small and Medium Scale Liquefied Natural Gas, SMSLNG). São examinados os detalhes da produção brasileira de GNL, decorrente da implantação, em 2006, do Projeto Gemini, uma planta de liquefação de pequena escala localizada na cidade de Paulínia SP. Em seguida, discute-se sobre a implementação de projetos de importação de GNL no Brasil. A partir dessas experiências passadas analisa-se os fatores facilitadores e as eventuais barreiras para o desenvolvimento do conceito de SMSLNG como solução tecnológica para liquefação de produções de gás natural de pequena e média escala na área do Pré-Sal da região Sudeste do Brasil. O trabalho conclui demonstrando que tecnologias para produção e manuseio do GNL em menores escalas encontram-se disponíveis no plano internacional e podem, efetivamente, colaborar para a monetização de fontes de suprimento de gás natural da área do Pré-Sal, tendo os mercados domésticos como destino. Porém, estratégias propostas para o desenvolvimento do SMSLNG aqui no Brasil dependem da melhoria da infraestrutura de distribuição do gás natural em todo o país e de avanços no quadro normativo e regulatório. Apresenta-se como estudo de caso, uma análise econômica da monetização do gás natural associado de um campo produtor do Pré-Sal. Os resultados comprovam que a solução SMSLNG representa uma oportunidade realista, e que merece pesquisas mais refinadas no futuro, para monetizar o gás natural associado em projetos offshore de pequena e média escala. Conclui-se com propostas de desenvolvimento de soluções de SMSLNG como alternativa de curto prazo para que o país possa superar dilemas impostos pela ausência de robusta infraestrutura dutoviária para escoar o gás natural tanto nas regiões produtivas do Pré-Sal como nos mercados domésticos de destino final do gás. / The desire for energy increases as the number of people grows and the increase in their standard of living leads to greater demands for comfort. To meet this challenge, it is fundamental to bring new sources of energy supply to the market. These need to meet ever more stringent sustainability criteria. Abundant natural gas resources are geographically distributed along the southeastern coast of Brazil, in the region known as the Pre-Salt polygon. However, growing advances in technology are required to bring this natural gas efficiently to the people who need it. The liquefaction and transport in small and medium scale appears as an option studied in this work. Since the year 2000, the world has witnessed an increase in interest in delivering Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) directly to the consumer. Natural gas accounts for about 1/4 of global energy demand, 10% of which is supplied in the form of LNG. LNG quickly assumes an important role in the world\'s energy prospects as it has grown faster than any other source of gas - at an average of 7% a year between 2000 and 2015. The dissertation gives an overview of the numbers of natural gas in the Brazil, and the world, as well as a review of the global LNG market, identifying the growing interest in Small and Medium Scale Liquefied Natural Gas (SMSLNG). The details of the Brazilian LNG production are examined, due to the implementation in 2006 of the Gemini Project, a small scale liquefaction plant located in the city of Paulínia (SP). Next, we discuss the implementation of LNG import projects in Brazil. From these past experiences we analyze the facilitating factors and possible barriers for the development of the SMSLNG concept as a technological solution for the liquefaction of small and medium-scale natural gas productions in the Pre-Salt area of the Southeast region of Brazil. The dissertation concludes by demonstrating that technologies for LNG production and handling at smaller scales are available internationally and can effectively collaborate for the monetization of natural gas supply sources in the Pre-Salt area, with domestic markets as destiny. However, strategies proposed for the development of the SMSLNG here in Brazil depend on the improvement of the natural gas distribution infrastructure throughout the country and on advances in the regulatory framework. An economic analysis of the monetization of the associated natural gas of a field producing the Pre-Salt is presented as case study. The results prove that the SMSLNG solution represents a realistic opportunity, and deserves more refined research in the future, to monetize associated natural gas in small and medium scale offshore projects. It concludes with proposals for the development of SMSLNG solutions as a short-term alternative so that the country can overcome dilemmas imposed by the absence of a robust pipeline infrastructure to leach natural gas both in the productive regions of the Pre-Salt and in the final destination domestic markets of gas

Microalgae are a diverse group of oxygenic photosynthetic microorganisms which show great promise as a source of biofuel. However, significant challenges still remain before microalgae can be considered a viable source of biofuel. The main current challenges are nutrient sourcing and recycling as well as downstream processing. The algal cell wall and especially the presence of an algaenan cell wall in some Chlorophyte algae could be an important variable in determining downstream processing costs but not much comparative research has been done to elucidate this. The first part of the present study focuses on the recently isolated alga Pseudochoricystis ellipsoidea (Trebouxiophyceae) and its improvement and assessment for biofuel production. Random mutagenesis and FACS screening protocols were developed for the isolation of pigment and cell wall mutants but despite considerable efforts no suitable mutants could be identified in the first half of this project. Two 500 L raceway ponds as well as an algal growth room and bubble column bioreactors were set up to facilitate algal research at the University of Bath and assess the performance of P. ellipsoidea in realistic culture conditions. P. ellipsoidea showed a maximum growth of 1.53 divisions day-1 in semi-open raceway ponds, resistance to contamination and a 30% lipid content, making it particularly suitable for raceway pond cultures. In the second part of this project six species of Chlorophyte (“green”) algae, three of which produced algaenan, were compared for suitability to growth in anaerobic digestate and municipal wastewater as well as cell wall strength, permeability and suitability to hydrothermal liquefaction. We found that anaerobic digestate was a good medium for the growth of all species independently of autoclaving and that non-autoclaved wastewater was a very challenging medium. Algaenan production did not affect cell disruption by ultrasonication but growth stage and cell wall thickness did. Lipid extraction kinetics by chloroform/methanol were greatly affected by algaenan, meaning that this material is relatively impermeable to organic solvents. Cell wall thickness, cell volume and lipid content also had an effect on lipid extraction kinetics but this was only measurable after 180 minutes of extraction. 8 Hydrothermal liquefaction showed high solid and low oil yields, very low sulphur (≤0.1 %) as well as a 1.1 % -1.8 % nitrogen content which is significantly lower than most algal HTL studies to date. This suggests that stationary stage algae are more difficult to process but give a cleaner biocrude and reduce the loss of nitrogen through incorporation in the oil. Significant opportunities for optimisation still exist in the HTL process.

Master of Engineering (Research) / Soil surrounding a submarine buried pipeline consolidates as ocean waves propagate over the seabed surface. Conventional models for the analysis of soil behaviour near the pipeline assume a two-dimensional interaction problem between waves, the seabed soil, and the structure. In other words, it is often considered that water waves travel normal to the orientation of pipeline. However, the real ocean environment is three-dimensional and waves approach the structure from various directions. It is therefore the key objective of the present research to study the seabed behaviour in the vicinity of marine pipelines from a three-dimensional point of view. A three-dimensional numerical model is developed based on the Finite Element Method to analyse the so-called momentary behaviour of soil under the wave loading. In this model, the pipeline is assumed to be rigid and anchored within a rigid impervious trench. A non-slip condition is considered to exist between the pipe and the surrounding soil. Quasi-static soil consolidation equations are then solved with the aid of the proposed FE model. In this analysis, the seabed behaviour is assumed to be linear elastic with the soil strains remaining small. The influence of wave obliquity on seabed responses, i.e. the pore pressure and soil stresses, are then studied. It is revealed that three-dimensional characteristics systematically affect the distribution of soil response around the circumference of the underwater pipeline. Numerical results suggest that the effect of wave obliquity on soil responses can be explained through the following two mechanisms: (i) geometry-based three-dimensional influences, and (ii) the formation of inversion nodes. Further, a parametric study is carried out to investigate the influence of soil, wave and pipeline properties on wave-associated pore pressure as well as principal effective and shear stresses within the porous bed, with the aid of proposed three-dimensional model. There is strong evidence in the literature that the failure of marine pipelines often stems from the instability of seabed soil close to this structure, rather than from construction deficiencies. The wave-induced seabed instability is either associated with the soil shear failure or the seabed liquefaction. Therefore, the developed three-dimensional FE model is used in this thesis to further investigate the instability of seabed soil in the presence of a pipeline. The widely-accepted criterion, which links the soil liquefaction to the wave-induced excess pressure is used herein to justify the seabed liquefaction. It should be pointed out that although the present analysis is only concerned with the momentary liquefaction of seabed soil, this study forms the basis for the three-dimensional analysis of liquefaction due to the residual mechanisms. The latter can be an important subject for future investigations. At the same time, a new concept is developed in this thesis to apply the dynamic component of soil stress angle to address the phenomenon of wave-associated soil shear failure. At this point, the influence of three-dimensionality on the potentials for seabed liquefaction and shear failure around the pipeline is investigated. Numerical simulations reveal that the wave obliquity may not notably affect the risk of liquefaction near the underwater pipeline. But, it significantly influences the potential for soil shear failure. Finally, the thesis proceeds to a parametric study on effects of wave, soil and pipeline characteristics on excess pore pressure and stress angle in the vicinity of the structure.

The city of Wellington has a high population concentration and lies within a geologically active landscape at the southern end of the North Island, New Zealand. Wellington has a high seismic risk due to its close proximity to several major fault systems, with the active Wellington Fault located in the north-western central city. Varying soil depth and properties in combination with the close proximity of active faults mean that in a large earthquake rupture event, ground shaking amplification is expected to occur in Thorndon, Te Aro and around the waterfront. This thesis focuses on the area bounded by Thorndon Overbridge in the north, Wellington Hospital in the south, Kelburn in the west, and Oriental Bay in the east. It includes many of the major buildings and infrastructural elements located within the central Wellington commercial area. The main objectives were to create an electronic database which allows for convenient access to all available data within the study area, to create a 3D geological model based upon this data, and to define areas of different seismic subsoil class and depth to rock within the study area at a scale that is useful for preliminary geotechnical analysis (1:5,000. Borelogs from 1025 holes with accompanying geological and geotechnical data obtained from GNS Science and Tonkin & Taylor were compiled into a database, together with the results from SPAC microtremor testing at 12 sites undertaken specifically for this study. This thesis discusses relevant background work and defines the local Wellington geology. A 3D geological model of the central Wellington commercial area, along with ten ArcGIS maps including surficial, depth to bedrock, site period, Vs30, ground shaking amplification hazard and site class (NZS 1170.5:2004) maps were created. These outputs show that a significant ground shaking amplification risk is posed on the city, with the waterfront, Te Aro and Thorndon areas most at risk.

Master of Engineering (Research) / Soil surrounding a submarine buried pipeline consolidates as ocean waves propagate over the seabed surface. Conventional models for the analysis of soil behaviour near the pipeline assume a two-dimensional interaction problem between waves, the seabed soil, and the structure. In other words, it is often considered that water waves travel normal to the orientation of pipeline. However, the real ocean environment is three-dimensional and waves approach the structure from various directions. It is therefore the key objective of the present research to study the seabed behaviour in the vicinity of marine pipelines from a three-dimensional point of view. A three-dimensional numerical model is developed based on the Finite Element Method to analyse the so-called momentary behaviour of soil under the wave loading. In this model, the pipeline is assumed to be rigid and anchored within a rigid impervious trench. A non-slip condition is considered to exist between the pipe and the surrounding soil. Quasi-static soil consolidation equations are then solved with the aid of the proposed FE model. In this analysis, the seabed behaviour is assumed to be linear elastic with the soil strains remaining small. The influence of wave obliquity on seabed responses, i.e. the pore pressure and soil stresses, are then studied. It is revealed that three-dimensional characteristics systematically affect the distribution of soil response around the circumference of the underwater pipeline. Numerical results suggest that the effect of wave obliquity on soil responses can be explained through the following two mechanisms: (i) geometry-based three-dimensional influences, and (ii) the formation of inversion nodes. Further, a parametric study is carried out to investigate the influence of soil, wave and pipeline properties on wave-associated pore pressure as well as principal effective and shear stresses within the porous bed, with the aid of proposed three-dimensional model. There is strong evidence in the literature that the failure of marine pipelines often stems from the instability of seabed soil close to this structure, rather than from construction deficiencies. The wave-induced seabed instability is either associated with the soil shear failure or the seabed liquefaction. Therefore, the developed three-dimensional FE model is used in this thesis to further investigate the instability of seabed soil in the presence of a pipeline. The widely-accepted criterion, which links the soil liquefaction to the wave-induced excess pressure is used herein to justify the seabed liquefaction. It should be pointed out that although the present analysis is only concerned with the momentary liquefaction of seabed soil, this study forms the basis for the three-dimensional analysis of liquefaction due to the residual mechanisms. The latter can be an important subject for future investigations. At the same time, a new concept is developed in this thesis to apply the dynamic component of soil stress angle to address the phenomenon of wave-associated soil shear failure. At this point, the influence of three-dimensionality on the potentials for seabed liquefaction and shear failure around the pipeline is investigated. Numerical simulations reveal that the wave obliquity may not notably affect the risk of liquefaction near the underwater pipeline. But, it significantly influences the potential for soil shear failure. Finally, the thesis proceeds to a parametric study on effects of wave, soil and pipeline characteristics on excess pore pressure and stress angle in the vicinity of the structure.