[Truncated abstract] To date, many subsurface contaminant modelling studies have focused on increasing model complexity and measurement requirements to improve model accuracy and widen model application. However, due to the highly complex and heterogeneous nature of flow in the subsurface, the greater benefit in model development may lie in decreasing complexity by identifying key processes and parameters, simplifying the relationships that exist between them, and incorporating these relationships into simple models that recognise or quantify the inherent complexity and uncertainty. To address this need, this study aims to identify and isolate the key processes and parameters that control dense nonaqueous phase liquid (DNAPL) and aqueous phase migration through single, onedimensional fractures. This is a theoretical representation which allows the study of processes through conceptual and mathematical models. Fracture systems typically consist of multiple two-dimensional fractures in a three-dimensional network; however, these systems are computationally and conceptually demanding to investigate and were outside of the scope of this study. This work initially focuses on DNAPL migration in single, one-dimensional fractures. The similitude techniques of dimensional and inspectional analysis are performed to simplify the system and to develop breakthrough time scale factors. This approach relies heavily on the limitations of the equation used for the analysis and on the difficulty in representing variable aperture scenarios. The complexity of the conceptual model is then increased by embedding the fracture in a two-dimensional, porous matrix. ... These tools can be readily applied by the field investigator or computer modeller to make order-of-magnitude estimates of breakthrough times, reduce or target measurement requirements, and lessen the need to employ numerical multiphase flow models. To determine the implications of the results found in the one-dimensional studies to applications at the field scale, the complexity of the conceptual model was increased to a single, two-dimensional, planar fracture embedded in a three-dimensional porous matrix. The focus of this study was not DNAPL breakthrough times but the relative importance and interaction of different mass transport processes and parameters on plume migration and evolution. Observations clearly show that estimates of the size, location and concentration of the plume is highly dependent on the geologic media, the temporal and spatial location and resolution of measurements, and on the history, mass and location of the DNAPL source. In addition, the processes controlling mass transport (especially matrix diffusion and back diffusion) act in combination at the field scale in ways not always expected from an analysis of processes acting individually at smaller spatial and temporal scales. Serious concerns over the application of the common '1% Rule of Thumb' to predict DNAPL presence and the use of remediation efforts that rely largely on natural attenuation are raised. These findings have major implications for the field worker and computer modeller, and any characterisation, monitoring or remediation program development needs to be sensitive to these findings.

Dispersões coloidais estão presentes em muitas aplicações industriais e biológicas, tais como indústria de alimentos, cosméticos, produtos farmacêuticos e nanoestruturas. Devido a efeitos entrópicos, macromoléculas, quando imersas em uma solução de partículas pequenas, tendem a se aglomerar. Para evitar este fenômeno, cargas são adicionadas à superfície do colóide. Conseqüentemente, para manter o sistema neutro, a solução contém uma série de pequenos contraíons que neutralizam a carga do colóide. A inclusão de cargas pode evitar a aglomeração dos colóides, mas incorpora ao problema uma série de novos efeitos de natureza eletrostática. Todos estes efeitos, bem como o comportamento termodinâmico do sistema, no entanto, podem ser compreendidos analisando-se a distribuição de contraíons ao redor do colóide. Uma teoria muito simples que fornece esta distribuição de contraíons é a teoria de Poisson Boltzmann, na qual os contraíons são partículas pontuais e as interações eletrostáticas entre os íons são obtidas via potencial médio criado por todos os íons sobre um determinado contraíon, desconsiderando, desta forma, as correlações. Nesta tese respondemos à pergunta: quando correlações eletrostáticas e de tamanho são relevantes? Propusemos que correlações eletrostáticas são relevantes quando as interações eletrostáticas entre íos superam os efeitos entrópicos, ou seja, quando o parâmetro de plasma está acima de um certo limiar, G2d > 2. Sugerimos, também, que o tamanho dos íons torna-se relevante quando a fração de volume dos contraíons na superfície do colóide está acima de um limiar, ou seja, fs > 0,2. As duas propostas são testadas comparando-se os resultados obtidos via teoria de Poisson Boltzmann com os resultados provenientes de simulações. Em seguida, empregamos a teoria de Debye-Hückel Buraco Cavidade para incorporar correlações eletrostáticas. Comparamos os resultados obtidos via esta teoria com os resultados de simulações. Mostramos que a incorporação dos efeitos de correlações eletrostáticas resultam em um maior número de contraíos próximos à superfície do macroíon do que o observado via teoria de Poisson Boltzmann. Depois, introduzimos duas teorias de funcionais de densidade ponderada que incluem efeitos de correlações de tamanho: funcional de densidade ponderada com um peso baseado na teoria Debye-Hückel Buraco Cavidade e uma funcional de densidade ponderada com um peso constante. Comparamos os resultados obtidos através destas duas teorias com simulações, e observamos que a segunda teoria apresenta uma melhor concordância com as simulações. De maneira geral, as correlações de tamanho deixam os íons mais afastados do colóide do que o predito via teoria de Poisson Boltzmann. Finalmente, propusemos uma combinação da teoria Debye-Hückel-Buraco-Cavidade e funcional de densidade ponderada com um peso constante para tratar de problemas onde tanto correlações eletrostáticas como de tamanho se façam presentes. Observamos que para G2d < 2 e fs < 0,2 a teoria mista fornece os mesmos resultados que a teoria de Poisson Boltzmann; para G2d > 2 e fs < 0,2 a teoria mista fornece os mesmos resultados que a teoria Debye-Hückel-Buraco-Cavidade, pois somente correlações eletrostáticas são relevantes; para G2d < 2 e fs > 0,2 a teoria mista oferece o mesmo resultado que a teoria funcional de densidade ponderada com um peso constante; para G2d ≈ 2 e fs ≈ 0,2 ocorre uma compensação entre efeitos e a teoria mista fornece o mesmo resultado que a teoria de Poisson Boltzmann. Para G2d > 2 and fs > 0,2 efeitos de tamanho dominam e a teoria mista oferece os mesmos resultados que a teoria da funcional de densidade ponderada com umpeso constante. / Colloidal dispersions are present in many industrial and biological applications going from food, cosmetics, pharmaceutical and nanostructures. Due to entropic effects the large macromolecules in a solvent made of small particles, agglomerate. In order to avoid this effect, charged groups are added to the colloidal surface. Consequently in order to keep the charge neutrality the solution is full of counterions. The addition of charges might stop agglomeration but adds a number of new phenomena that are deeply related to the distribution of the counterions around the macroion. One simple theory that describes this distribution is the Poisson Boltzmann approach in which the counterions are assumed to be point ions and where the electrostatic interactions between the counterions are taken into account as the average field on a singel ions, ignoring correlations. In this thesis we address the question; when does electrostatic correlations and the size of the counterions are relevant? We propose that electrostatic correlations are relevant when the electrostatic interactions between the ions are bigger than the entropic effects. This assumption can be expressed by the plasma parameter being above a certain threshold, G2d > 2. We also propose that the size of the counterions become relevant when the volume fraction of ions at the surface of the colloid is above a certain threshold fs > 0.2. This two propositions are tested comparing results obtained with the PB theory with simulations. We then propose a theory to take into account the electrostatic correlations, the Debye-Hückel-Hole-Cavity and test this approach with simulations. The electrostatic correlation leads to more ions close to the colloid than the Poisson Boltzmann predicts. Next, we present two different approaches to account for size effects, the Weight Density Approximation based in the Debye-Hückel-Hole-Cavity theory and the Weight Density Approximation based in a constant weight. Comparison with simulations show that the second approach gives a better agreement. The size correlations leads to less ions close to the colloid than the Poisson Boltzmann approach predicts. Finally we propose a combination of the Debye-Hückel-Hole-Cavity and the Weight Density Approximation based in a constant weight to be the theory able to take into account both electrostatic and size correlations. Our result shows that for G2d <2 and fs <0.2 electrostatic and size correlations are irrelevant so Poisson Boltzmann is a good approach; for G2d > 2 and fs < 0.2 electrostatic correlations dominates and Debye-Hückel-Hole-Cavity gives a good approach; G2d < 2 and fs > 0.2 the Weight Density Approximation based in a constant weight gives the correct behavior; for G2d ≈ 2 and fs ≈ 0.2 the electrostatic correlation effects cancel the size effects and Poisson Boltzmann gives a good approximation. For G2d > 2 and fs > 0.2 size effects dominate.

Dispersões coloidais estão presentes em muitas aplicações industriais e biológicas, tais como indústria de alimentos, cosméticos, produtos farmacêuticos e nanoestruturas. Devido a efeitos entrópicos, macromoléculas, quando imersas em uma solução de partículas pequenas, tendem a se aglomerar. Para evitar este fenômeno, cargas são adicionadas à superfície do colóide. Conseqüentemente, para manter o sistema neutro, a solução contém uma série de pequenos contraíons que neutralizam a carga do colóide. A inclusão de cargas pode evitar a aglomeração dos colóides, mas incorpora ao problema uma série de novos efeitos de natureza eletrostática. Todos estes efeitos, bem como o comportamento termodinâmico do sistema, no entanto, podem ser compreendidos analisando-se a distribuição de contraíons ao redor do colóide. Uma teoria muito simples que fornece esta distribuição de contraíons é a teoria de Poisson Boltzmann, na qual os contraíons são partículas pontuais e as interações eletrostáticas entre os íons são obtidas via potencial médio criado por todos os íons sobre um determinado contraíon, desconsiderando, desta forma, as correlações. Nesta tese respondemos à pergunta: quando correlações eletrostáticas e de tamanho são relevantes? Propusemos que correlações eletrostáticas são relevantes quando as interações eletrostáticas entre íos superam os efeitos entrópicos, ou seja, quando o parâmetro de plasma está acima de um certo limiar, G2d > 2. Sugerimos, também, que o tamanho dos íons torna-se relevante quando a fração de volume dos contraíons na superfície do colóide está acima de um limiar, ou seja, fs > 0,2. As duas propostas são testadas comparando-se os resultados obtidos via teoria de Poisson Boltzmann com os resultados provenientes de simulações. Em seguida, empregamos a teoria de Debye-Hückel Buraco Cavidade para incorporar correlações eletrostáticas. Comparamos os resultados obtidos via esta teoria com os resultados de simulações. Mostramos que a incorporação dos efeitos de correlações eletrostáticas resultam em um maior número de contraíos próximos à superfície do macroíon do que o observado via teoria de Poisson Boltzmann. Depois, introduzimos duas teorias de funcionais de densidade ponderada que incluem efeitos de correlações de tamanho: funcional de densidade ponderada com um peso baseado na teoria Debye-Hückel Buraco Cavidade e uma funcional de densidade ponderada com um peso constante. Comparamos os resultados obtidos através destas duas teorias com simulações, e observamos que a segunda teoria apresenta uma melhor concordância com as simulações. De maneira geral, as correlações de tamanho deixam os íons mais afastados do colóide do que o predito via teoria de Poisson Boltzmann. Finalmente, propusemos uma combinação da teoria Debye-Hückel-Buraco-Cavidade e funcional de densidade ponderada com um peso constante para tratar de problemas onde tanto correlações eletrostáticas como de tamanho se façam presentes. Observamos que para G2d < 2 e fs < 0,2 a teoria mista fornece os mesmos resultados que a teoria de Poisson Boltzmann; para G2d > 2 e fs < 0,2 a teoria mista fornece os mesmos resultados que a teoria Debye-Hückel-Buraco-Cavidade, pois somente correlações eletrostáticas são relevantes; para G2d < 2 e fs > 0,2 a teoria mista oferece o mesmo resultado que a teoria funcional de densidade ponderada com um peso constante; para G2d ≈ 2 e fs ≈ 0,2 ocorre uma compensação entre efeitos e a teoria mista fornece o mesmo resultado que a teoria de Poisson Boltzmann. Para G2d > 2 and fs > 0,2 efeitos de tamanho dominam e a teoria mista oferece os mesmos resultados que a teoria da funcional de densidade ponderada com umpeso constante. / Colloidal dispersions are present in many industrial and biological applications going from food, cosmetics, pharmaceutical and nanostructures. Due to entropic effects the large macromolecules in a solvent made of small particles, agglomerate. In order to avoid this effect, charged groups are added to the colloidal surface. Consequently in order to keep the charge neutrality the solution is full of counterions. The addition of charges might stop agglomeration but adds a number of new phenomena that are deeply related to the distribution of the counterions around the macroion. One simple theory that describes this distribution is the Poisson Boltzmann approach in which the counterions are assumed to be point ions and where the electrostatic interactions between the counterions are taken into account as the average field on a singel ions, ignoring correlations. In this thesis we address the question; when does electrostatic correlations and the size of the counterions are relevant? We propose that electrostatic correlations are relevant when the electrostatic interactions between the ions are bigger than the entropic effects. This assumption can be expressed by the plasma parameter being above a certain threshold, G2d > 2. We also propose that the size of the counterions become relevant when the volume fraction of ions at the surface of the colloid is above a certain threshold fs > 0.2. This two propositions are tested comparing results obtained with the PB theory with simulations. We then propose a theory to take into account the electrostatic correlations, the Debye-Hückel-Hole-Cavity and test this approach with simulations. The electrostatic correlation leads to more ions close to the colloid than the Poisson Boltzmann predicts. Next, we present two different approaches to account for size effects, the Weight Density Approximation based in the Debye-Hückel-Hole-Cavity theory and the Weight Density Approximation based in a constant weight. Comparison with simulations show that the second approach gives a better agreement. The size correlations leads to less ions close to the colloid than the Poisson Boltzmann approach predicts. Finally we propose a combination of the Debye-Hückel-Hole-Cavity and the Weight Density Approximation based in a constant weight to be the theory able to take into account both electrostatic and size correlations. Our result shows that for G2d <2 and fs <0.2 electrostatic and size correlations are irrelevant so Poisson Boltzmann is a good approach; for G2d > 2 and fs < 0.2 electrostatic correlations dominates and Debye-Hückel-Hole-Cavity gives a good approach; G2d < 2 and fs > 0.2 the Weight Density Approximation based in a constant weight gives the correct behavior; for G2d ≈ 2 and fs ≈ 0.2 the electrostatic correlation effects cancel the size effects and Poisson Boltzmann gives a good approximation. For G2d > 2 and fs > 0.2 size effects dominate.

Devido à sua natureza, o gás natural (GN) tem na distância aos pontos de consumo um obstáculo para sua utilização, a qual vai além simples queima para geração de energia ou obtenção de calor. Portanto, é importante que sejam discutidos novos métodos para distribuí-lo e transformá-lo em fontes de energia de maior valor agregado ou em matéria-prima para fabricação de produtos a serem utilizados na indústria química. Uma opção é a conversão do GN em combustíveis líquidos de pronto uso como óleo diesel, gasolina e querosene de aviação através da rota Gas-To-Liquids (GTL). O presente trabalho avalia o potencial da tecnologia GTL no contexto do crescimento da oferta de gás natural no Brasil pelos gasodutos Rota 2 e Rota 3, contextualizando o cenário brasileiro desse energético, as perspectivas futuras e o estado da tecnologia GTL com o processo Fisher-Tropsch. Para tanto, é simulado e analisado o desempenho econômico de uma planta de diesel GTL operante por 30 anos em cenários de preços de insumo e produto obtidos por projeções de reconhecimento internacional. / The usage of natural gás (NG) is related to the distance to the final customers, that is a real obstacle to its full utilization which is beyond the usage as fuel for electricity or heat generation. It is important to prospect, analyze and propose new methods for distribution and transformation of this important energy suppy to more value added products or special raw material for the chemical industry. The transformation in ready for use liquid fuels like diesel, gasoline and kerosene through the gas-to-liquid route (GTL) is one of the options. This dissertation evaluates the GTL technology in a context of the NG additional volume available through 2 new pipelines coming from offshore, Rota 2 and Rota 3 in the Brazilian context of NG current usage and its future perspectives taking advantage of this additional availability via the traditional and long term tested GTL Fischer-Tropsch (FT) technology. A GTL FT Diesel plant operating for 30 years was taken as an example considering different scenarios for NG and Oil prices retrieved from the IEA data base that is internationally considered as a consistent source of information.

Dispersões coloidais estão presentes em muitas aplicações industriais e biológicas, tais como indústria de alimentos, cosméticos, produtos farmacêuticos e nanoestruturas. Devido a efeitos entrópicos, macromoléculas, quando imersas em uma solução de partículas pequenas, tendem a se aglomerar. Para evitar este fenômeno, cargas são adicionadas à superfície do colóide. Conseqüentemente, para manter o sistema neutro, a solução contém uma série de pequenos contraíons que neutralizam a carga do colóide. A inclusão de cargas pode evitar a aglomeração dos colóides, mas incorpora ao problema uma série de novos efeitos de natureza eletrostática. Todos estes efeitos, bem como o comportamento termodinâmico do sistema, no entanto, podem ser compreendidos analisando-se a distribuição de contraíons ao redor do colóide. Uma teoria muito simples que fornece esta distribuição de contraíons é a teoria de Poisson Boltzmann, na qual os contraíons são partículas pontuais e as interações eletrostáticas entre os íons são obtidas via potencial médio criado por todos os íons sobre um determinado contraíon, desconsiderando, desta forma, as correlações. Nesta tese respondemos à pergunta: quando correlações eletrostáticas e de tamanho são relevantes? Propusemos que correlações eletrostáticas são relevantes quando as interações eletrostáticas entre íos superam os efeitos entrópicos, ou seja, quando o parâmetro de plasma está acima de um certo limiar, G2d > 2. Sugerimos, também, que o tamanho dos íons torna-se relevante quando a fração de volume dos contraíons na superfície do colóide está acima de um limiar, ou seja, fs > 0,2. As duas propostas são testadas comparando-se os resultados obtidos via teoria de Poisson Boltzmann com os resultados provenientes de simulações. Em seguida, empregamos a teoria de Debye-Hückel Buraco Cavidade para incorporar correlações eletrostáticas. Comparamos os resultados obtidos via esta teoria com os resultados de simulações. Mostramos que a incorporação dos efeitos de correlações eletrostáticas resultam em um maior número de contraíos próximos à superfície do macroíon do que o observado via teoria de Poisson Boltzmann. Depois, introduzimos duas teorias de funcionais de densidade ponderada que incluem efeitos de correlações de tamanho: funcional de densidade ponderada com um peso baseado na teoria Debye-Hückel Buraco Cavidade e uma funcional de densidade ponderada com um peso constante. Comparamos os resultados obtidos através destas duas teorias com simulações, e observamos que a segunda teoria apresenta uma melhor concordância com as simulações. De maneira geral, as correlações de tamanho deixam os íons mais afastados do colóide do que o predito via teoria de Poisson Boltzmann. Finalmente, propusemos uma combinação da teoria Debye-Hückel-Buraco-Cavidade e funcional de densidade ponderada com um peso constante para tratar de problemas onde tanto correlações eletrostáticas como de tamanho se façam presentes. Observamos que para G2d < 2 e fs < 0,2 a teoria mista fornece os mesmos resultados que a teoria de Poisson Boltzmann; para G2d > 2 e fs < 0,2 a teoria mista fornece os mesmos resultados que a teoria Debye-Hückel-Buraco-Cavidade, pois somente correlações eletrostáticas são relevantes; para G2d < 2 e fs > 0,2 a teoria mista oferece o mesmo resultado que a teoria funcional de densidade ponderada com um peso constante; para G2d ≈ 2 e fs ≈ 0,2 ocorre uma compensação entre efeitos e a teoria mista fornece o mesmo resultado que a teoria de Poisson Boltzmann. Para G2d > 2 and fs > 0,2 efeitos de tamanho dominam e a teoria mista oferece os mesmos resultados que a teoria da funcional de densidade ponderada com umpeso constante. / Colloidal dispersions are present in many industrial and biological applications going from food, cosmetics, pharmaceutical and nanostructures. Due to entropic effects the large macromolecules in a solvent made of small particles, agglomerate. In order to avoid this effect, charged groups are added to the colloidal surface. Consequently in order to keep the charge neutrality the solution is full of counterions. The addition of charges might stop agglomeration but adds a number of new phenomena that are deeply related to the distribution of the counterions around the macroion. One simple theory that describes this distribution is the Poisson Boltzmann approach in which the counterions are assumed to be point ions and where the electrostatic interactions between the counterions are taken into account as the average field on a singel ions, ignoring correlations. In this thesis we address the question; when does electrostatic correlations and the size of the counterions are relevant? We propose that electrostatic correlations are relevant when the electrostatic interactions between the ions are bigger than the entropic effects. This assumption can be expressed by the plasma parameter being above a certain threshold, G2d > 2. We also propose that the size of the counterions become relevant when the volume fraction of ions at the surface of the colloid is above a certain threshold fs > 0.2. This two propositions are tested comparing results obtained with the PB theory with simulations. We then propose a theory to take into account the electrostatic correlations, the Debye-Hückel-Hole-Cavity and test this approach with simulations. The electrostatic correlation leads to more ions close to the colloid than the Poisson Boltzmann predicts. Next, we present two different approaches to account for size effects, the Weight Density Approximation based in the Debye-Hückel-Hole-Cavity theory and the Weight Density Approximation based in a constant weight. Comparison with simulations show that the second approach gives a better agreement. The size correlations leads to less ions close to the colloid than the Poisson Boltzmann approach predicts. Finally we propose a combination of the Debye-Hückel-Hole-Cavity and the Weight Density Approximation based in a constant weight to be the theory able to take into account both electrostatic and size correlations. Our result shows that for G2d <2 and fs <0.2 electrostatic and size correlations are irrelevant so Poisson Boltzmann is a good approach; for G2d > 2 and fs < 0.2 electrostatic correlations dominates and Debye-Hückel-Hole-Cavity gives a good approach; G2d < 2 and fs > 0.2 the Weight Density Approximation based in a constant weight gives the correct behavior; for G2d ≈ 2 and fs ≈ 0.2 the electrostatic correlation effects cancel the size effects and Poisson Boltzmann gives a good approximation. For G2d > 2 and fs > 0.2 size effects dominate.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo a síntese e a determinação de propriedades micelares de líquidos iônicos tensoativos (LITs) catiônicos. Dentre as características importantes desses compostos destacamos: alta deslocalização da carga e caráter ácido no hidrogênio H2 do anel heterocíclico e a grande flexibilidade estrutural, estas são relevantes para as propriedades de soluções desses tensoativos, e, consequentemente, para suas aplicações. A influência da variação estrutural nas suas propriedades é importante para modular as propriedades micelares e, por consequência suas aplicações. A síntese de LITs foi realizada por aquecimento convencional e irradiação por micro-ondas, o último método foi o mais eficiente. Inicialmente, estudamos a influência do comprimento da cadeia carbônica (fator importante para a energia de formação de micelas), de cloretos de 1-alquil-3-metilimidazólio, tendo a cadeia n-alquílica 10 a 16 átomos de carbonos. Em seguida, comparamos as propriedades dos LITs acima mencionados com as de tensoativos convencionais, cloretos de 1-alquilpiridínio e cloretos 1-alcanoil-amidoetil benzildimetilamônio. Por fim, estudamos a influência do volume da cabeça-polar, utilizando cloretos de 1-alquil-3-hexadecilimidazólio, tendo a cadeia alquílica secundária 1 a 5 átomos de carbono. As propriedades micelares foram investigadas por tensão superficial, condutividade, calorimetria, espalhamento de luz e ressonância magnética nuclear. Os resultados mostraram que ligações de hidrogênio (devido ao H2 ácido do anel imidazólio) e as interações hidrofóbicas são relevantes para a formação de micelas e que o aumento do volume da cabeça-polar favorece a micelização e a formação de agregados pré-micelares / The objective of this work is the synthesis and determination of the micelar properties of cationic surface-active ionic liquids (SAILs). Among the important characteristics of these compounds are: high charge delocalization and acid character of hydrogen H2 of the heterocyclic ring and large structural flexibility, the latter is relevant to solution properties of these surfactants, hence to their applications. Synthesis of SAILs was carried out by conventional heating or by microwave irradiation, the later method was more efficient. Initially, we studied the influence of the chain length of the alkyl group (an important factor for the energy of micelle formation) of 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium chlorides, n-alkyl group having 10 to 16 carbon atoms. Then, we compared the properties of the above mentioned SAILs with conventional surfactants, 1-alkylpyridinium chlorides and 1-alkanoyl-amidoethyl benzyldimethylammonium chlorides. Finally, we studied the influence of the head-group volume, by studying 1-alkyl-3-hexadecylimidazolium chlorides, with secondary n-alkyl group having 1 to 5 carbon atoms. The micelar properties were investigated by surface tension, conductivity, calorimetry, light scattering and nuclear magnetic resonance. Our results have shown that hydrogen bonding (due to the acidic H2 of the imidazolium ring) and hydrophobic interactions are relevant to micelle formation; increasing the head-group volume favors micellization and the formation of pre-micellar aggregates

In this PhD thesis, we study the interplay between symmetry-breaking order and quantum-disordered phases in the milieu of frustrated quantum magnets, and further show how the excitation process of long-wavelength (semi-)classical modes in spin-orbit coupled antiferromagnets crucially depends on the nature and interactions of the underlying quantum quasiparticles. First, we focus on Kitaev's exactly solvable model for a Z2 spin liquid as a building block for constructing novel phases of matter, utilizing Majorana mean-field theory (MMFT) to map out phase diagrams and study occurring phases. In the Kitaev Kondo lattice, conduction electrons couple via a Kondo interaction to the local moments in the Kitaev model. We find at small Kondo couplings a fractionalized Fermi liquid (FL*) phase, a stable non-Fermi liquid where conventional electronic quasiparticles coexist with the deconfined excitations of the spin liquid. The transition between FL* and a conventional Fermi liquid is masked by an exotic (confining) superconducting phase which exhibits nematic triplet pairing, which we argue to be mediated by the Majorana fermions in the Kitaev spin liquid. We moreover study bilayer Kitaev models, where two Kitaev honeycomb spin liquids are coupled via an antiferromagnetic Heisenberg interaction. Varying interlayer coupling and Kitaev coupling anisotropy, we find both direct transitions from the spin liquid to a trivial dimer paramagnet as well as intermediate 'macrospin' phases, which can be studied by mappings to effective transverse-field Ising models. Further, we find a novel interlayer coherent pi-flux phase. Second, we consider the stuffed honeycomb Heisenberg antiferromagnet, where recent numerical studies suggest the coexistence of collinear Néel order and a correlated paramagnet, dubbed 'partial quantum disorder'. We elucidate the mechanism which drives the disorder in this model by perturbatively integrating out magnons to derive an effective model for the disordered sublattice. This effective model is close to a transition between two competing ground states, and we conjecture that strong fluctuations associated with this transition lead to disorder. Third, we study the generation of coherent low-energy magnons using ultrafast laser pulses in the spin-orbit coupled antiferromagnet Sr2IrO4, inspired by recent pump-probe experiments. While the relaxation dynamics of the system at long time scales can be well described semi-classically, the ultrafast excitation process is inherently non-classical. Using symmetry analysis to write down the most general coupling between electric field and spin operators, we subsequently integrate out high-energy spin fluctuations to derive induced effective fields which act to excite the low-energy magnon, constituting a generalized 'inverse Faraday effect'. Our theory reveals a tight relationship between induced fields and the two-magnon density of states.:1 Introduction 1.1 Frustrated antiferromagnets 1.2 Quantum spin liquids 1.3 Fractionalization and topological order 1.4 Spin-orbit coupling 1.5 Outline I Novel phases by building on Kitaev’s honeycomb model 2 Kitaev honeycomb spin liquid 2.1 Microscopic spin model and constants of motion 2.2 Majorana representation of spin algebra 2.3 Exact solution 2.3.1 Ground state 2.3.2 Correlations and dynamics 2.3.3 Thermodynamic properties 2.4 Z2 gauge structure 2.5 Toric code 2.6 Topological order 2.6.1 Superselection sectors and ground-state degeneracy 2.6.2 Topological entanglement entropy 2.6.3 Symmetry-enriched and symmetry-protected topological phases 3 Mean-field theory 3.1 Generalized spin representations 3.1.1 Parton constructions 3.1.2 SO(4) Majorana representation 3.2 Projective symmetry groups 3.3 Mean-field solution of the Kitaevmodel 3.4 Comparisonwithexactsolution 3.4.1 Spectral properties 3.4.2 Correlation functions 3.4.3 Thermodynamic properties 3.5 Generalized decoupling 3.6 Comparison to previous Abrikosov fermion mean-field theories of the Kitaev model 3.7 Discussion 4 Fractionalized Fermi liquids and exotic superconductivity in the Kitaev Kondo lattice 4.1 Metals with frustration 4.2 Local-moment formation and Kondo effect 4.2.1 Single Kondo impurity 4.2.2 Kondo lattices and heavy Fermi liquids 4.3 Fractionalized Fermi liquids 4.4 Construction of the Kitaev Kondo lattice 4.4.1 Hamiltonian 4.4.2 Symmetries 4.5 Mean-field decoupling of Kondo interaction 4.5.1 Solution of self-consistency conditions 4.6 Overview of mean-field phases 4.7 Fractionalized Fermi liquid 4.7.1 Results from mean-field theory 4.7.2 Perturbation theory beyond mean-field theory 4.8 Heavy Fermi liquid 4.9 Superconducting phases 4.9.1 Spontaneously broken U(1) phase rotation symmetry 4.9.2 Excitation spectrum and nematicity 4.9.3 Topological triviality 4.9.4 Group-theoretical classification 4.9.5 Pairing glue 4.10 Comparison with a subsequent study 4.11 Discussion and outlook 5 Bilayer Kitaev models 5.1 Model and stacking geometries 5.1.1 Hamiltonian 5.1.2 Symmetries and conserved quantities 5.2 Previous results 5.3 Mean-field decoupling and phase diagrams 5.3.1 AA stacking 5.3.2 AB stacking 5.3.3 σAC stacking 5.3.4 σ ̄AC stacking 5.4 Quantum phase transition in the AA stacking 5.4.1 Perturbative analysis 5.5 Phase transition in the σAC stacking 5.6 Macro-spin phases 5.6.1 KSL-MAC transition: Effective model for Kitaev dimers 5.6.2 DIM-MAC transition: Effective theory for triplon condensation 5.6.3 Macro-spin interactions and series expansion results 5.6.4 Antiferromagnet in the AB stacking 5.7 Stability of KSL and the interlayer-coherent π-flux phase 5.7.1 Perturbative stability of the Kitaev spin liquid 5.7.2 Spontaneous interlayer coherence near the isotropic point 5.8 Summary and discussion II Partial quantum disorder in the stuffed honeycomb lattice 6 Partial quantum disorder in the stuffed honeycomb lattice 6.1 Definition of the stuffed honeycomb Heisenberg antiferromagnet 6.2 Previous numerical results 6.3 Derivation of an effective model 6.3.1 Spin-wave theory for the honeycomb magnons 6.3.2 Magnon-central spin vertices 6.3.3 Perturbation theory 6.3.4 Instantaneous approximation 6.3.5 Truncation of couplings 6.3.6 Single-ion anisotropy 6.3.7 Discussion of most dominant interactions 6.4 Analysis of effective model 6.4.1 Classical ground states 6.4.2 Stability of classical ground states in linear spin-wave theory 6.4.3 Minimal model for incommensurate phase 6.4.4 Discussion of frustration mechanism in the effective model 6.5 Partial quantum disorder beyond the effectivemodel 6.5.1 Competition between PD and the (semi-)classical canted state 6.5.2 Topological aspects 6.5.3 Experimental signatures 6.6 Discussion 6.6.1 Directions for further numerical studies 6.6.2 Experimental prospects III Optical excitation of coherent magnons 7 Ultrafast optical excitation of magnons in Sr2IrO4 7.1 Pump-probe experiments 7.2 Previous approaches to the inverse Faraday effect and theory goals 7.3 Sr2IrO4 as a spin-orbit driven Mott insulator 7.4 Spin model for basal planes in Sr2IrO4 7.4.1 Symmetry analysis 7.4.2 Classical ground state and linear spin-wave theory 7.4.3 Mechanism for in-plane anisotropy 7.5 Pump-induced dynamics 7.5.1 Coupling to the electric field: Symmetry analysis 7.5.2 Keldysh path integral 7.5.3 Low-energy dynamics 7.5.4 Driven low-energy dynamics 7.6 Derivation of the induced fields 7.6.1 Perturbation theory 7.6.2 Evaluation of loop diagram 7.6.3 Analytical momentum integration in the continuum limit 7.6.4 Numerical evaluation of effective fields 7.7 Analysis of induced fields 7.7.1 Polarization and angular dependence 7.7.2 Two-magnon spectral features 7.8 Applications to experiment 7.8.1 Predictions for experiment 7.8.2 Magnetoelectrical couplings 7.9 Discussion and outlook 8 Conclusion and outlook 8.1 Summary 8.2 Outlook IV Appendices A Path integral methods B Spin-wave theory B.1 Holstein-Primakoff bosons B.2 Linear spin-wave theory B.2.1 Diagonalization via Bogoliubov transformation B.2.2 Applicability of linear approximation B.3 Magnon-magnon interactions B.3.1 Dyson's equation and 1/S consistency B.3.2 Self-energy from quartic interactions in collinear states on bipartite lattices C Details on the SO(4) Majorana mean-field theory C.1 SO(4) Matrix representation of SU(2) subalgebras C.2 Generalized SO(4) Majorana mean-field theory for a Heisenberg dimer (Chapter 3) C.3 Dimerization of SO(4) Majorana mean-field for the Kitaev model (Chapter3) C.4 Mean-field Hamiltonian in the Kitaev Kondo lattice (Chapter 4) C.5 Example solutions in the superconducting phase for symmetry analysis (Chapter4) D Linear spin-wave theory for macrospin phase in the bilayer Kitaev model (Chapter 5) D.1 Spin-wave Hamiltonian and Bogoliubov rotation D.2 Results and discussion E Extrapolation of the effective couplings for the staggered field h -> 0 (Chapter 6) E.1 xy interaction E.1.1 Leadingorder ~ S0 E.1.2 Subleadingorder ~ S^(−1) E.2 z-Ising interaction F Light-induced fields by analytical integration (Chapter 7) F.1 Method F.2 Results Bibliography

The objective of this research is to explore the use of ionic liquds in crystal engineering and drug delivery. Ionic liquids have a wide range of applications in pharmaceutical field due to their unique physicochemical propertie ssuch as chemical, thermal stability, low melting point, nonvolatility, nonflamability, low toxicity and recyclability which offer unique and interesting potential for pharmaceuitcal applications. Currently, many research groups are working on the development of ionic liquids to use in this field but there is need to develop systematic understanding about new techniques for synthesis and applications of ionic liquids to obtain new crystal form and potential of drug ionic salts. The synthesis of fifteen phosphonium ionic liquids under microwave irradiation and their physicochemical properties was investigated. The reaction time was significantly reduced compared to conventional methods, and higher yields were reported. The crystallisation of pharmaceutical drugs such as sulfathiazole, chlorpropamide, phenobarbital and nifedipine were investigated using imidazolium ionic liquids. The supramolecular complex of sulfathiazole and phenobarbital with imidazolium ionic liquids and polymorphic change in chlorpropamide was achieved. The ionic liquids provides unique environment for the crystallisation. The imidazolium salts of ibuprofen and diclofenac were synthesised and evaluated for physicochemical properties and their pharmaceutical performances especially transdermal absorption. The investigation of physicochemcal properties and pharmaceutical performance of imidazolium drug salts indicated opportunity to optimise lipophilicity and other physicochemical properties such as molecular size, osmolality, viscosity to achieve desired skin deposition and permeation. This study will provide a new approach to design of new drug salts develop using the interdisciplinary knowledge of chemical synthesis and drug delivery. / Social Justice Department, Government of Maharashtra, India.

Pharmaceutical companies and FDA (Federal Drug Administration) rules rely heavily on crystalline active pharmaceutical ingredients delivered as tablets and powders in the form of neutral compounds, salts and solvates of neutral compounds and salts. About half of all drugs sold in the market are in the form of salts which are held together by ionic bonds along with some other forces. Recently, Ionic liquids (ILs) an interesting class of chemical compounds have offered potential opportunity for exploration as novel drug ionic liquid salts, particularly in the field of transdermal/topical drug delivery. Due to the multifunctional nature of these salts they could allow generation of new pathway to manipulate the transport and deposition behaviour of the drug molecule. It is this modular approach of IL that forms the basis of the research presented here, in which pharmaceutically acceptable compounds are combined with selected drugs with known problems. IL salts were generated by combining at least one drug molecule with FDA approved compounds and were assessed for physicochemical properties, skin deposition and permeation studies. Skin deposition data suggested that these systems exhibit high skin retention, which was found to correlate with the molecular weight. On the other hand, permeation data displayed an inverse relationship between flux values and molecular weight of the permeant. Similar work was extended with ILs with mixed anions containing two drugs. The benzalkonium-sulfacetamide ILs were investigated for synergism and the biological studies data display no synergistic effect. It was also illustrated that in-situ IL based ibuprofen hydrogels systems could be manipulated via IL approach for topical application. These findings suggest the potential applicability of IL based formulations for topical delivery of drugs.

This thesis explores the structures and dynamics of optically confined matter, ranging from single particle traps to complex optically bound colloidal arrays, investigating and quantifying the behaviour of each system. It begins with an introduction to optical manipulation techniques and a discussion of the development of the single beam gradient force trap, more commonly referred to as optical tweezers. Following this, the building of a single beam optical trap will be presented alongside a discussion of some of the key components in such a setup, before it is calibrated, allowing a demonstration of some of the techniques which are utilised later in the thesis. The optical trapping of aerosol droplets is an area of key importance in atmospheric chemistry, as optical tweezers provide a valuable and versatile tool for droplet manipulation and characterisation. Trapping single aerosol droplets is facilitated by using annular rather than conventional Gaussian beams, as will be demonstrated, with significant advantages in increasing the size range of trappable droplets, and improving their axial localisation. These improvements will be demonstrated experimentally with an in-depth comparison of Gaussian and annular beam trapping. These enhancements are also verified theoretically using a model developed by Burnham and McGloin, showing excellent agreement with experimental results. Ionic liquids, defined as organic salts with melting points below room temperature, are another area of great contemporary interest. They are highly tunable and so have been referred to as "designer solvents", and also have important applications as "green" solvents in organic chemistry. Trapping particles within these novel liquids allows a micro-rheological investigation of their properties to be conducted. This is demonstrated by determining the temperature dependent viscosity changes of these media, showing excellent agreement with previous macro-rheological studies. In addition, hydrodynamic effects such as Faxen's correction to viscous drag in proximity to a surface, and hydrodynamic coupling between pairs of colloids trapped in ionic liquids are demonstrated. Following these single and dual particle studies, this thesis continues with an investigation of the structures and dynamics of optically bound matter formed of larger numbers of particles. The behaviour of these optically bound structures is particularly sensitive to the number of particles involved, and so a counter-propagating evanescent field trap in conjunction with an inverted optical tweezers setup is utilised in order to controllably assemble these structures and study the factors affecting their behaviour. Initially one-dimensional chains of optically bound 3.5 um diameter silica particles are studied, allowing an implementation of Generalized Lorentz-Mie Theory (GLMT) to be developed through collaboration with Dr. Jonathan Taylor of The University of Glasgow. Experimental and theoretical insights allow further understanding of the processes involved in the formation of these structures. Having studied the behaviour of 3.5 um diameter silica particles in a counter-propagating evanescent wave trap, the effects of changing particle size and refractive index are presented by using smaller silica and melamine particles. These results are explained in terms of the increased importance of interference fringes in determining the arrangement of the optically bound structures of smaller particles, and due to the increased interaction of the melamine particles with the evanescent field as a result of the larger refractive index contrast between them and the trapping medium. The thesis then concludes with a study of the dynamics of the previously presented optically bound chains. Initially the diffusion of single particles in the evanescent field is compared to their freely-diffusing behaviour, quantifying the confining effect of the field. The addition of particles to the field then allows the diffusive behaviour to be studied as a function of particle number, and understood in terms of on-axis confinement by adjacent particles. The tilting of these optically bound chains relative to the inter-beam axis is also explored as a function of particle number, as is the rigidity of these chains. Finally a more complex, dynamic effect is presented, dubbed "Newton's Cradle", in which particles are ejected from the ends of the chains before returning and repeating this process. This behaviour is understood by utilising the previously developed GLMT simulations.