Islamic banking in the United States of America, became recognized as an alternative to expand into the market of traditional Muslim consumers, living in the United States. Because of strict regulatory guidelines, no Islamic banks exist in the United States. Instead, conventional banks, Islāmic banking windows (IBW) and other financial institutions offer Shari‘ah compliant products by modifying classical Islamic contracts or attaching a rider to define contract verbiage. This study reviewed techniques of adapting contracts used for Shari‘ah compliant products in the United States to determine if the contracts maintain the true characteristics of the original classical Islamic contracts. Contracts in Islamic sacred law provide protections by ensuring wealth is not wasted, and no injustice is performed by either of the contracting parties. Wealth protection and justice are the inherit characteristics of contracts in the Islāmic law. Any changes or modifications may void or decrease the protections provided in Islamic law. This research reviewed the theoretical aspects of contract modifications, by analyzing the procedures used for the derivative Shari‘ah compliant product contracts used in the Islamic finance industry in the United States. Data was evaluated and compared with the requirements of classical Islamic contract equivalents, to determine the effects of these changes. / Religious Studies and Arabic / D. Phil. (Religious Studies)

Purpose: In Sweden, a municipal plan monopoly is used to regulate what, how and where you can or cannot build. How the plans, in the shape of comprehensive and detailed development plans, are formed is in turn regulated by the Planning and Building Act (PBL). Throughout history, Swedish building regulations have gone through many more or less extensive changes with the overall goal to improve our built environment and simplify or streamline the planning and building processes. From this comes the term small deviation, which in PBL is used to allow building permits that deviate from the detailed development plan, provided that the deviation is small. There is, however, no explanation in the law as to what this might mean in practice, and so there are large differences in terms of interpretation and application. The goal of this study is to analyse how the term small deviation according to PBL, chapter 9 § 31b is interpreted and applicated in building permit trials. Method: The methods used in this study are interviews (with building permit officers) and document analysis (of building permit decisions from quarter two, 2016, and court cases from the Land and Environment Court of Appeal). Findings: How deviations are interpreted does indeed vastly differ, and while the municipalities do work in a similar manner to determine whether a deviation could be considered small, there are significant differences. Only in the matter of built area on a property, the three studied municipalities all have different practices in what size of violation may be considered small, and the building permit officers in one of these municipalities still deviate from this. In eight out of 13 court cases, the Land and Environment Court of Appeal judged differently from the previous authorities. Only in one did all authorities agree. Implications: The findings implicate the following: There are remarkable differences in how small deviation is assessed. De biggest differences are between the local building permit officers and the Land and Environment Court of Appeal. The factors that affect the assessment on a municipal level the most are experience, precedent cases and discussion with colleagues. Limitations: A wider study containing more information from several municipalities and an analysis of the material accessible to the municipalities for guidance to assess deviations would provide a clearer answer as to what affects the interpretation. Keywords: PBL, Planning and Building Act, building permits, law interpretation, interpretation, deviation, small deviation, deviation from detailed development plan, sensemaking, the Land and Environment Court of Appeal / Syfte: I Sverige används ett kommunalt planmonopol som regleras av Plan- och bygglagen (PBL) 2010:900. Planerna i form av översikts- och detaljplaner reglerar vad, hur och var man får eller inte får bygga. Genom åren har PBL många gånger genomgått mer eller mindre omfattande förändringar med det övergripande syftet att förbättra svensk byggd miljö och förenkla eller effektivisera plan- och byggprocessen, därför har begreppet liten avvikelse tillkommit i PBL. I författningen framgår att det trots avvikelser från planbestämmelser är möjligt att bevilja bygglov, förutsatt att avvikelsen är liten. Det saknas dock förklaringar i PBL kring vad detta kan innebära, och stora skillnader i bedömningen kring vad som kan anses vara en liten avvikelse finns. Målet med arbetet är att analysera hur begreppet liten avvikelse enligt PBL, kap 9 § 31b tolkas och appliceras vid bygglovshandläggning. Metod: De metoder som använts i undersökningen är intervjuer (med bygglovshandläggare) och dokumentanalys (av bygglovsbeslut kvartal två, 2016, och rättsfall i Mark- och miljööverdomstolen från 2016). Resultat: Resultatet visar att det finns stora skillnader i hur liten avvikelse tolkas och appliceras, både mellan olika instanser och på kommunal nivå. Medan kommunerna använder dylika metoder för att avgöra om en avvikelse kan anses vara liten, finns det även avsevärda skillnader i bedömningen. Bara när det gäller byggrätt har kommunerna i undersökningen riktvärden det är stor skillnad på. I åtta av 13 fall bedömde Mark- och miljööverdomstolen olika från samtliga tidigare instanser, och bara i ett fall var samtliga överens om graden av avvikelse. Konsekvenser: De slutsatser som kan dras från resultatet är att: Det finns anmärkningsvärda skillnader i hur liten avvikelse bedöms. De största skillnaderna är mellan den lokala nämnden och Mark- och miljööverdomstolen. Det som främst påverkar bedömningen på kommunal nivå är erfarenhet, prejudicerande rättsfall och diskussion med kollegor. Begränsningar: En bredare undersökning med fler kommuner och bygglovsbeslut från en längre tidsperiod i kombination med en analys av det material som finns för att hjälpa bygglovshandläggare bedöma avvikelser hade kunnat ge ett tydligare svar på vad som påverkar tolkningen. Det hade också gett ett tydligare svar på hur skillnaderna huvudsakligen ser ut, vilket i sin tur gjort det möjligt att ta fram förslag till lösningar. Nyckelord: PBL, Plan- och bygglagen, bygglov, lagtolkning, tolkning, avvikelse, liten avvikelse, avvikelse från detaljplan, meningsskapande, MÖD, Mark- och miljööverdomstolen

La thèse effectue une revue de la littérature scientifique sur la Cour dans le processus d’intégration juridique, en classant les différentes positions selon qu’ils définissent le rôle de la Cour comme réactif ou pro-actif. En faisant cette revue de la littérature, cinq facteurs sont mis en exergue pour ce qui concerne la problématique de l’autonomie de la Cour, qui feront l’objet d’une analyse approfondie dans la suite de la thèse :<p>I) Limites inhérentes à l’interprétation juridique des Traités tels qu’ils se retrouvent dans les règles institutionnalisées du raisonnement de la Cour ;<p>II) L’interaction, au niveau européen, entre la Cour et les autres institutions ;<p>III) Les pressions et les stratégies d’influence des Etats membres vis-à-vis de la Cour comme agent de leurs préférences ;<p>IV) La dépendance structurelle de la Cour supranationale vis-à-vis ses interlocuteurs judiciaires au niveau national ;<p>V) Le degré d’obéissance que les appareils administratifs et exécutifs des Etats membres démontrent vis-à-vis la jurisprudence de la Cour.<p>Par rapport à ces facteurs, et leur importance relative dans la détermination de la ligne d’action de la Cour de Justice, la thèse évalue les changements et les défis auxquels est soumise la fonction de la Cour de justice au niveau de l’Union européenne, en particulier par rapport à l’environnement de plus en plus critique ou évolue la trajectoire jurisprudentielle de la Cour par rapport aux acteurs politiques et juridiques, l’érosion du caractère sui generis du droit communautaire dans le contexte du droit international, le rôle de plus en plus affiché des cours nationales, et le contexte institutionnel dans lequel se trouve à agir cette juridiction. / Doctorat en Sciences politiques et sociales / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Les juges de la Cour Suprême des États-Unis et la notion de constitution vivante.Une constitution écrite peut-elle évoluer au cours du temps et s’adapter aux besoins et aux valeurs évolutives de la société, sans pour autant être révisée formellement ? Et si oui, qu’en est-il du texte constitutionnel ? Devant ces interrogations, la notion de constitution vivante vise à résoudre le paradoxe du changement matériel de la Constitution sans modification du texte. Elle est sans aucun doute un topos – qui ne manque pas de susciter des critiques,notamment celle de la théorie dite « originaliste » - de la pensée constitutionnelle américaine, un concept mobilisé, en l’occurrence, pour justifier la cause de la réforme juridique et sociale. Elle a été développée,durant le XXe siècle, principalement par des juges de la Cour Suprême américaine qui ont fourni une approche stimulante et fertile de la nature de la Constitution. La notion de constitution vivante exprime donc une conception évolutive de la Loi suprême, qui saurait, par sa flexibilité et sa fonctionnalité,s’adapter au changement de circonstances. Dans ce cadre, elle a été instrumentalisée afin de surmonter la rigidité de la procédure de révision formelle prescrite par l’article V de la Constitution. Cette notion est dès lors porteuse de la tension entre la permanence du texte et l’évolution du droit constitutionnel positif. Pour justifier ce décalage entre la forme et le fond, les juges défenseurs de la constitution vivante ont toujours traité le texte comme un « document vivant », qui doit être lu à la lumière des valeurs évolutives et des idéaux partagés par le peuple américain. / The Justices of the United States Supreme Court and the notion of the livingConstitutionCan a written constitution evolve over time and adapt itself to the changingneeds and values of society, without being formally amended? If yes, thenwhat about the text? The notion of the living constitution tries to solve theparadox of constitutional change without modification of the text. It is acommon place notion – though subject to fierce criticism, notably byoriginalism - of U.S. constitutional thought, a concept invoked on manydifferent occasions in order to promote constitutional and social change. It hasbeen primarily elaborated by certain Justices of the Supreme Court of theUnited States during the 20th century, who have offered a stimulatingapproach of the nature of the U.S. Constitution. From their point of view, thenotion of the living constitution is based on the idea that the Constitutionevolves over time adapting itself to the ever changing circumstances. It thusleads to a theory of interpretation which treats the constitutional provisionsthat allocate powers or guarantee individual rights as flexible and vital.Furthermore, the notion of the living constitution has been used as a means ofovercoming the barrier of the amendment procedure as prescribed by Article Vof the U.S. Constitution. Therefore, it is marked by the tension between thepermanence of the text and the evolution of constitutional law. In order tojustify this evolution, the Justices who defend the notion of the livingConstitution, have always treated the text as a living document, which mustbe read in light of the aspirations and the high ideals of the American people.

Una adecuada interpretación del principio de legalidad ofrece buenas razones para admitir la analogía in bonam partem en el Derecho penal aunque de un modo limitado. Incluso cuando el juez mediante ésta excluye o limita el ejercicio del ius puniendi, el aplicador del Derecho penal debe seguir apegado a la ley. De este modo, la analogía in bonam partem debe ser vista como un mecanismo excepcional de integración del Derecho penal frente a inconsistencias axiológicas no previstas ni deseadas por el legislador. Estas excepcionales facultades creadoras reconocidas al juez tienen lugar frente a concretas instituciones jurídico-penales y dentro de un determinado marco argumentativo. En este sentido, la analogía in bonam partem es un medio para crear supralegalmente causas de justificación, causas de exculpación y atenuantes, mientras que no para crear excusas absolutorias. Igualmente, el juez puede crear Derecho solamente a partir de la analogía legis o la analogía institutionis, sin resultar posible acudir a la analogía iuris. / An adequate interpretation of the legality principle offers sound reasons to accept analogy in bonam partem in Criminal Law, though only in a limited way. Even when the judge excludes or limits the ius puniendi through the use of analogy, she should still be strictly subjected to the norm. Therefore the analogy in bonam partem must be seen as an exceptional mechanism of Criminal Law's Integration in the presence of axiological inconsistencies that the Parliament didn't foresee and didn't want. These exceptional law-making powers awarded to the judge refer to specific Criminal law institutions and in a specific argumentative framework. In this sense, analogy in bonam partem is an instrument to supra-legally create justifications, excuses, and mitigating circumstances, but not other types of punishment excluding institutions. In the same manner, the judge can create new Criminal Law only through legis Analogy and institutionis Analogy but not through iuris Analogy.

Text in English and Arabic / In pre-colonial Africa, the Southwestern Sahara which includes Mauritania, Mali and Senegal belonged to what was then referred to as the Sudan and extended from the Atlantic seaboard to the Red Sea. The advent of Islam and the Arabic language to West Africa in the 11th century heralded an intellectual marathon whose literary output still fascinates us today. At a time when Europe was emerging from the dark ages and Africa was for most Europeans a terra incognita, indigenous African scholars were composing treatises as diverse as mathematics, agriculture and the Islamic sciences. A twentieth century Mauritanian, Arabic monograph, Irshād al- Muqallidīn ʿinda ikhtilāf al-Mujtahidīn1, written circa 1910/1332, by a yet unknown Mauritanian jurist of the Mālikī School, Bāba bin al-Shaykh Sīdī al- Shinqīṭī al-Ntishā-ī (d.1920/1342), a member of the muchacclaimed Shinqīṭī fraternity of scholars, is a fine example of African literary accomplishment. This manuscript hereinafter referred to as the Irshād, is written within the legal framework of Islamic jurisprudence (usūl al-fiqh). A science that relies for the most part on the intellectual and interpretive competence of the independent jurist, or mujtahid, in the application of the methodologies employed in the extraction of legal norms from the primary sources of the sharīʿah. The subject matter of the Irshād deals with the question of juristic differences. Juristic differences invariably arise when a mujtahid exercises his academic freedom to clarify or resolve conundrums in the law and to postulate legal norms. Other independent jurists (mujtahidūn) may posit different legal norms because of the exercise of their individual interpretive skills. These differences, when they are deemed juristically irreconcilable, are called ikhtilāfāt (pl. of ikhtilāf). The author of the Irshād explores a corollary of the ikhtilāf narrative and posits the hypothesis that there ought not to be ikhtilāf in the sharīʿah. The proposed research will comprise an annotated translation of the monograph followed by a synopsis and commentary on its dominant themes. / Religious Studies and Arabic / D. Litt. et Phil. (Islamic Studies)