At the Swedish Transport Administration two different maintenance strategies are practiced to keep cameras in road tunnels clean. The theory of Life Cycle Cost, LCC, is applied on maintenance depending on its Level of Automation, LoA, and is further developed. In the case of cameras, in Swedish road tunnels the processes demonstrate two different LoA. LCC is used to compare and analyze how the properties between semiautomatic and manual maintenance affect investment costs, operational costs and the cost of preventive and corrective maintenance. Semiautomatic cleaning maintenance of cameras in road tunnels indicate a larger LCC than manual maintenance. This is due to a larger investment cost for machinery, but a similar annual cost for preventive maintenance. The presented properties affecting LCC are placed in a general context. This emphasize the significance of examining costs at high level of detail and comprehend the properties causing the costs.

Dans le cadre de ma thèse portant sur la détermination du niveau d’automatisation optimal pour la conception des lignes d’assemblage, une revue de littérature exhaustive a été élaborée en premier lieu sur le sujet. La revue a confirmé que peu de travaux traitent ce problème et montre un manque de méthodologies objectives et méthodiquement applicable afin de pouvoir fournir une aide à la décision d’automatisation. A la suite, les facteurs et critères intervenants dans la décision ont été identifiés. Une méthodologie guidant une décision multicritère dédiée aux systèmes d’assemblages a été établie. Cette méthode, permet la prise en compte de différents critères décisionnels, tels que : le temps et le coût d’assemblage, le critère qualité, l’aspect ergonomique, la stratégie et les préférences de l’industriel, la localisation et le contexte économique, la capacité d’investir ou l’aspect social de l’entreprise.La méthodologie de décision établie nécessite en particulier une méthode graphique standardisée de représentation du processus d’assemblage et de l’allocation des ressources. Les méthodes graphiques existantes concernant la représentation de processus d’assemblage ont été donc revues et analysées. Ceci a conduit à la définition d’une nouvelle méthode graphique dédiée établie par inspirations et combinaison de méthodes existantes afin de répondre aux exigences du sujet définies au préalable. Après définition de cette méthode baptisée ASML pour « Assembly Sequences Modeling Language », un vocabulaire standardisé de mouvements élémentaires d’assemblage a été réutilisé de la littérature.Un vocabulaire de plus haut niveau, celui des taches et techniques d’assemblage, en lien avec le premier, a ensuite été défini pour diverses raisons. Ceci permettra de bénéficier à la fois d’une facilité et d’une rapidité de modélisation avec l’utilisation du vocabulaire de taches défini, mais aussi des avantages du premier vocabulaire tel que la détermination des temps d’assemblage ou la détection des opérations répétitives comme signes propices pour une éventuelle automatisation à étudier. L’ensemble permet de définir, organiser, et représenter la séquence d’assemblage par analyse du design du produit. Une démarche d’allocation adéquate représente une conséquence directe qui a été définie en compagnie de certaines règles définie en cohérence avec les principes du « lean manufacturing ».Nous nous intéressons ensuite à l’intégration du critère coût vu l‘importance des investissements générés par des automatisations. Une revue exhaustive en estimation de coût a été ainsi établie. A la suite, un modèle intégré permettant l’estimation du coût d’assemblage par produit a été défini. Ce modèle, basé sur les estimations de temps du processus ainsi que sur des informations stratégiques de la production planifiée, a la vocation de prédire le coût d’assemblage par produit pour une alternative de système en question.A ce stade, tous les éléments sont réunis pour la modélisation et la prédiction de performance d’une alternative candidate de système d’assemblage. Or l’objectif est de déterminer la meilleure configuration possible, il est nécessaire d’appliquer l’approche sur plusieurs options possibles ou alternatives d’assemblage. Ce processus ne peut évidemment pas être réalisé d’une manière individuelle ou manuelle, et donc une implémentation d’un module de génération de scénarios possibles puis leurs évaluations est ainsi nécessaire. Cette implémentation a été réalisée par le développement d’une méthode de résolution exacte par formulation mathématique en un programme linéaire en nombre entiers. L’approche globale a été validée sur des exemples numériques, académiques de la littérature, mais aussi industriels. Les résultats s’avèrent ainsi prometteurs et représentent une approche innovante en matière de décision du niveau d’automatisation, un domaine qui manque de littérature et d’aide en décision. / This work is performed in the context of PhD dissertation of Anas Salmi in Grenoble INP – School of Industrial Engineering. The thesis is supervised by Dr. Eric Blanco (Grenoble INP – GSCOP laboratory) and co-supervised by Dr. Pierre David (Grenoble INP – GSCOP laboratory) and Pr. Joshua Summers (Clemson University – CEDAR laboratory).The work aims at defining a procedure and tool to help assembly manufacturers, particularly deciders, managers, and systems designers in the decision about automation for their assembly processes design. The purpose is to orient to the optimal Level of Automation (LoA) of the process since the early conceptual design phase.The purpose is to provide the most appropriate solution, most profitable, with consideration of the production requirements, product design features and characteristics, assembly sequence, and manufacturer’s exigencies and preferences and prior decision criteria from different point of views such as quality level, ergonomics, reliability, and manufacturer’s best practices and historical data. Different manufacturer’s constraints have also to be also taken into account in the decision such as social, financial and investment potentials, as well as the location and labor rate.A state of the art of the topic was realized and has shown that the literature about LoA deciding is not abundant. This need to support LoA deciding and delicacy of such process were also recognized by several assembly manufactures and researchers.A first main contribution consists in a multi-criteria LoA decision methodology proposal involving several identified decision criteria to be considered in the decision process.The approach generated a need to define an adequate modelling language. A new graphic Assembly Sequences Modeling Language (ASML) was then defined allowing conceptual assembly processes modelling since the early phase by assembly operations with different architectural possibilities. A standard model can be then defined introducing an intuitive and generic way to define systems with various automation levels alternatives.Rules and time standard databases were also developed allowing assembly systems ASML modelled time estimation based on standardized motions, corresponding time standards, and process’ architectures.To easier the alternatives generation and for better standardization, a high layer vocabulary of 20 standardized assembly tasks, associated to the modelling language, is defined. These developments allow a quick modelling and time estimation when automatically linked to the motions vocabulary.As the economic criterion represents the major occupation and criterion for every manufacturer in such heavy investment, an early phase cost model is developed after an exhaustive review in the field. The cost model, when combined to the previous developments, allows assembly systems alternatives cost prediction with consideration of selected automation options.To computerize the automation decision approach and the exhaustive generation of assembly systems alternatives for the sake of finding the optimal configuration, a mathematical integer formulation is developed and validated. The model is implemented in CPLEX OPL and allows the convergence to the optimal configuration with consideration of the different entered constraints and manufacturers preliminary preferences as input matrices.This work includes theoretical and industrial validations. It opens multiple perspectives and openings in the field of assembly systems design, particularly the rationalization of product and process integrated development by the assembly system automatic generation directly from the product design CAD tool. Other openings of work instructions generation and standardization may represent also promising openings.

This project explores about different aspects of level of automation from a theoretical point of view and reflecting upon them by validating the ideas through benchmarking some of the SMEs in Småland region. This report includes a detailed description of SME’s and its importance, which is then narrowed down to the challenges they face due to technological advancements and changing market. The main purpose of this study is to analyze the level of automation, the SME’s in Småland region have adopted currently. This pre-study is carried out to gather information on a variety of products manufactured and the production system strategy in practice currently and carry out a pilot study to provide a systematic approach towards changing the level of automation. In order to differentiate the SME’s in Småland region according to their automation level, concepts like automation pyramid and level of automation taxonomies are used. LOA taxonomies are used to divide the various operations and tasks between humans and the automated systems. Whereas the automation pyramid is used to categorize the SME’s to their respective automation level. A contrast analysis is carried out to illustrate the automation levels in different companies based on the findings. Finally, the report is concluded considering the levels of automation the selected companies represent from the study and the overall automation level is proposed. Further recommendations are provided for industrial standardization with respect to automation.

There are many challenges when automating industrial processes. Successful automation projects can lead to several benefits such as lower manufacturing costs, improved quality and reduced lead times. The purpose of this study is to identify the biggest challenges when automating processes within heavy industry and then, find ways to solve these. The study has an abductive approach, where focus has shifted between literature and empirical data. Empirical data has been gathered through a case study. The case study is carried out at a company that operates within heavy industry. It’s a pre-study before an automation project. The case study has followed methods presented in literature. Challenges that proved most difficult during automation within heavy industry were: Adapting a product for automatic manufacturing and product variations. The conclusion drawn from the results and experiences during the case study, is that the most comprehensive solution to these challenges is continuous improvements of products and processes.

This thesis investigates the relationships between performance, workload, and situation awareness at varying levels of automation. The relationships observed in this study are compared to a description put forth to formalize the conventional interpretation of the trade-off between the benefits of automation during routine operation and the costs under conditions of automation failure. The original work stipulated that this “routine-failure trade-off” is likely a simplification affected by contextual factors. This work therefore aimed to i) provide empirical evidence to support or refute the trade-off and ii) to identify possible extenuating factors. The results generally supported the routine-failure trade-off, and considered in light of the functional structure of the task suggested that the relationships between goals and individual functions specific to a given task seem to affect the overall costs and benefits of automation through the mechanism of selective reliance. Further work is required to validate the findings of this study.

This thesis investigates the relationships between performance, workload, and situation awareness at varying levels of automation. The relationships observed in this study are compared to a description put forth to formalize the conventional interpretation of the trade-off between the benefits of automation during routine operation and the costs under conditions of automation failure. The original work stipulated that this “routine-failure trade-off” is likely a simplification affected by contextual factors. This work therefore aimed to i) provide empirical evidence to support or refute the trade-off and ii) to identify possible extenuating factors. The results generally supported the routine-failure trade-off, and considered in light of the functional structure of the task suggested that the relationships between goals and individual functions specific to a given task seem to affect the overall costs and benefits of automation through the mechanism of selective reliance. Further work is required to validate the findings of this study.

Planning and management of logistics and material flow are widely studied and two key factors contributing to company competitiveness. Automation in material flow is recognized in efficient and profitable factories in the context of today’s smart industry, however, the operators are playing a significant role as well. The purpose of the study was to identify which criteria could be used to determine the level of automation in a material flow of the industrial factory. A model was developed to practically support the decision making on the level of automation for the case company that was going to build a pilot line for battery manufacturing. The question for the case company was to decide whether the process should be fully automated, manual, or semi-automated in its trial production to avoid costly reconfigurations when a full production starts. In this study a literature review was conducted in the form of previous research to describe which criteria were important to decide the level of automation. The literature study together with site visiting, interviews, survey and document analysis was used for the formulation of research questions, establishment of methodology and model development. The study has identified different criteria whereas six of them are shared by both literature studies and the case company. Two unique criteria were identified in the case company but not found in the literature: lead time and recruitment. The lead time refers to the time from planning to finished process and the recruitment is about how difficult to recruit people with the right skills. Two theoretical contributions presented in this study: new criteria when deciding on the level of automation and a model that assists in decisions regarding the level of automation in early phases. The model is also a practical contribution to the case company. Finally, some suggestions for further research within the area are presented.

The highly competitive global market, high labor costs, and the rapid development of modern technologies are all major reasons that motivate manufacturing companies to increase the Level of Automation (LoA) in their assembly lines using modern technologies. It was found that the Dynamo++ method is an effective tool to determine and measure the current physical and cognitive LoA in assembly stations, analyze the results and suggest some future improvementsaccording to the company’s requirements. In this paper, the main motivations that encourage companies to increase their LoA were discussed, and the literature was searched for some methods that help to increase the LoA in automotive assembly systems. After that, the Dynamo++ methodology was chosen as the best method because it integrates the physical and cognitive LoA and because it has been applied in many cases and companies and satisfactory results have been achieved. In addition, this paper discussed some of the limitations and improvements within the Dynamo++ method and discussed the results obtained after applying itin the main line and range line. Moreover, this paper also discussed the common challenges that manufacturing companies face when implementing automation solutions and how to overcome these obstacles in a way that ensures optimal use of promising automation opportunities. At the conclusion of this paper, the benefits that companies will gain if they adopt automation plans were discussed, and focus was placed on the most important technologies that will help raise the LoA in manufacturing lines.

The aim of this work is to create a methodology for creating a strategy to increase the level of automation of manufacturing process. Based on the customer´s requirements, management of manufacturing company, the concept of methodology was developed. The research and design of the necessary tools and procedures to evaluate the feasibility of automation were subsequently carried out. Based on the outputs from the feasibility analysis, rules for the formulation of the automation strategy were established. The method was subsequently applied to the process of the manufacturing company for which an analysis of the feasibility of automation was carried out. Subsequently, recommendations were made for further steps to increase the level of automation, thus proposing a strategy for the company. The methodology created is applicable to companies with discrete batch production that do not have defined the automation strategy yet.

The purpose of this thesis is to fill the previous research gap concerning automation in the horticulture industry by discovering the adoption of automation in the U.S. and Canada, exploring the possibilities of introducing autonomous solutions and provide recommendations as to how this could create opportunities for small robotics companies targeting the industry. A case company in the U.S. and Canada was used as an example of a small robotics company for the case study. Two research questions were formulated: RQ1: Which major tasks in the horticulture industry should a small robotics company aim to automate? RQ2: What are the barriers for companies in the horticulture industry to invest in automated solutions? A mixed methods research with a pragmatic, inductive and exploratory approach was employed. The primary source of data was gathered from surveys, due to the geographical diversity of the region studied. The surveys reveal that the average level of automation across all respondents averaged at 47%. Given the strategy of the case company, a small robotics company is argued to aim to automate the following tasks: placing plant liners, sticking cuttings and planting seed, spacing of plants and containers, plant pruning, harvesting and grading production, and pesticide application. The horticulture industry is showing low barriers to invest in automation. The relatively high levels of automation are leading to increased trust in automation and further investments in automation. This is shown in the technology being perceived as useful amongst 75-85% of respondents and perceived as easy to use amongst 94% of respondents. / Syftet med denna avhandling är att fylla det tidigare forskargapet om automatisering inom hortikultur, genom att utforska acceptansen av automatisering i USA och Kanada, utforska möjligheterna att införa autonoma lösningar och ge rekommendationer om hur detta kan skapa möjligheter för små robotföretag som riktar sig mot branschen. En fallstudie på ett robotföretag i USA och Kanada användes som ett exempel på ett litet robotföretag. Två forskningsfrågor formulerades: RQ1: Vilka stora uppgifter inom hortikultur bör ett litet robotföretag sträva efter att automatisera?RQ2: Vilka hinder finns för företag inom hortikultur att investera i automatiserade lösningar? En blandad metodforskning med ett pragmatiskt, induktivt och utforskande tillvägagångssätt användes. Den primära källan till data samlades från undersökningar, på grund av den geografiska mångfalden i regionen som studerades. Undersökningarna visar att den genomsnittliga automatiseringsgraden för alla svarande i genomsnitt uppgick till 47%. Med tanke på bolagets strategi rekommenderas ett litet robotföretag att automatisera följande uppgifter: rada upp plantor, stick och plantera frön, skapa avstånd mellan växter och behållare, beskära och kvalitetsgranska skördar, och applicera bekämpningsmedel. Hortikulturindustrin visar låga hinder för investeringar i automatisering. De relativt höga automatiseringsnivåerna leder till ökat förtroende för automatisering och ytterligare investeringar i automation. Detta framgår av tekniken som uppfattas som användbar bland 75–85% av de svarande och uppfattas som lätt att använda bland 94% av de svarande.