Three-dimensional macroporous structures (‘opals’ and ‘inverse opals’) can be produced by colloidal crystal templating, one of the most intensively studied areas in materials science today. There are several potential advantages of lithium-ion battery electrodes based on inverse opal structures. High electrode surface, easier electrolyte access to the bulk of electrode and reduced lithium diffusion lengths allow higher discharge rates. Highly open structures provide for better mechanical stability to volume swings during cycling. Silicon is one of the most promising anode materials for lithium-ion batteries. Its theoretical capacity exceeds capacities of all other materials besides metallic lithium. Silicon is abundant, cheap, and its use would allow for incorporation of microbattery production into the semiconductor manufacturing. Performance of silicon is restricted mainly by large volume changes during cycling. The objective of this work was to investigate how the inverse opal structures influence the performance of silicon electrodes. Several types of silicon-based inverse opal films were synthesised, and their electrochemical performance was studied. Amorphous silicon inverse opals were fabricated via chemical vapour deposition and characterised by various techniques. Galvanostatic cycling of these materials confirmed the feasibility of the approach taken, since the electrodes demonstrated high capacities and decent capacity retentions. The rate performance of amorphous silicon inverse opals was unsatisfactory due to low conductivity of silicon. The conductivity of silicon inverse opals was improved by crystallisation. Nanocrystalline silicon inverse opals demonstrated much better rate capabilities, but the capacities faded to zero after several cycles. Silicon-carbon composite inverse opal materials were synthesised by depositing a thin layer of carbon via pyrolysis of a sucrose-based precursor onto the silicon inverse opals in an attempt to further increase conductivity and achieve mechanical stabilisation of the structures. The amount of carbon deposited proved to be insufficient to stabilise the structures, and silicon-carbon composites demonstrated unsatisfactory electrochemical behaviour. Carbon inverse opals were coated with amorphous silicon producing another type of macroporous composites. These electrodes demonstrated significant improvement both in capacity retentions and in rate capabilities. The inner carbon matrix not only increased the material conductivity, but also resulted in lower silicon pulverisation during cycling.

Titanium dioxide, TiO₂, materials have received much attention in recent years due to their potential use as intercalation negative electrodes for rechargeable lithium-ion batteries. The aim of this doctoral work was to synthesise and characterise new titanium dioxide nanomaterials and to investigate their electrochemical behaviour. Three morphologies of TiO₂(B) phase: micro-sized (bulk), nanowires and nanotubes, were synthesised. All three exhibit properties which make them excellent hosts for lithium intercalation. The nanotubes show the best capability of accommodating lithium in the structure, being able to host over one molar equivalent of lithium at low current rates (5 mA g⁻¹). The lithium insertion mechanism in the TiO₂(B) was studied using powder neutron diffraction. In addition, the nature of the irreversible capacity of the nanotubes was studied and ways of reducing it proposed. Nanotubes of another titanium dioxide polymorph, anatase, were synthesised and characterised. Their electrochemical performance was compared with that of commercially available counterparts with different morphologies and particle sizes. The interrelation between particle size/morphology and electrochemical properties has been established. The insertion of lithium which leads to phase variations was studied using in situ Raman microscopy and neutron powder diffraction. It has been demonstrated that doping of the TiO₂(B) nanotubes with vanadium improves their electronic conductivity which is essential for practical applications. Remarkably good electrochemical performance is exhibited by the 6% V-doped TiO₂(B) nanotubes.

L’objectif du travail décrit dans cette thèse est de développer des batteries Li-ion peu coûteuses, respectueuses de l’environnement, facilement industrialisables et recyclables, tout en utilisant des fibres cellulosiques et un procédé en milieu aqueux. Deux approches ont été adoptées pendant ce travail expérimental. Dans un premier temps, les microfibrilles de cellulose ont été utilisées pour la production d’anodes par un procédé de casting. Puis, une approche papetière a été adoptée. La plupart des travaux expérimentaux se sont focalisés sur l’utilisation de fibres de cellulose pour la production d’électrodes papier (anodes et cathodes) et de séparateurs-papier par procédé de filtration en milieu aqueux pour obtenir des cellules complètes à base de cellulose. Les électrodes obtenues sont homogènes, souples et leurs propriétés électrochimiques comparables à celles d’électrodes de références utilisant un polymère de synthèse comme liant. / This work investigates the production of low cost, low environmental impact, easily up-scalable and recyclable cellulose-based Li-ion batteries. Two main research approaches were explored. At first, microfibrillated cellulose was used for the production of paper-like anodes by means of a water-based casting process.Then, a papermaking approach was adopted and the majority of the experimental work was focused on the use of cellulose fibers for the production of paper-electrodes (i.e. anodes and cathodes) and paper-separators by means of a water-based filtration process.The prepared electrodes are easy to handle and self-standing with good electrochemical characteristics, comparable with that of standard synthetic polymer-bonded electrodes.

L’étain est une alternative privilégiée en remplacement du carbone graphite comme matériau d’électrode négative dans les batteries Li-ion en raison de son importante capacité théorique spécifique massique de 993 mAh.g-1. Toutefois son expansion volumique lors sa lithiation conduit à sa dégradation au cours du cyclage, diminuant la durée de vie du matériau. Pour pallier à sa pulvérisation, l’utilisation de l’espace inter-granulaire via la nanostructuration du matériau est complétée par l’adjonction d’une matrice carbonée ou d’un autre élément inactif vis-à-vis de la lithiation (utilisation d’alliages intermétalliques). L’objectif de ce travail porte sur l’élaboration de nouveaux procédés de synthèse de nanoparticules d’étain et d’alliage étain-cuivre en milieu liquide ionique. Des nanoparticules de Sn de taille variant de 7 à 45 nm, selon la combinaison cation-anion du liquide ionique et à partir de différents sels métalliques, ont été synthétisées, ainsi qu’un nano-alliage, le composé Cu6Sn5. La taille des nanoparticules est liée à la nature de l’anion bien que le cation présente une interaction privilégiée avec la surface métallique des nanoparticules. Isolées du liquide ionique, les nanoparticules de Sn et Cu6Sn5 montrent une architecture de type cœur-coquille avec un cœur cristallin métallique ou intermétallique et une coquille amorphe d’oxydes d’étain. Les nanoparticules de type Sn@SnOx présentent une capacité spécifique élevée supérieure à 950 mAh.g-1, mettant en lumière un mécanisme de conversion réversible du SnOx surfacique, et celle du nano-alliage Sn-Cu@SnOx est proche de la capacité attendue pour un mécanisme d’alliage, à plus de 530 mAh.g-1. / Tin is a promising alternative to replace graphite carbon as a negative electrode material in Li-ion batteries due to its high specific theoretical mass capacity of 993 mAh.g-1. However, change in volume during lithiation leads to its mechanical degradation during the cycling, and consequently very short life of the material. To overcome this issue, the use of the intergranular space via the nanostructuration of the material combined by the addition of a carbon matrix or other inactive element vs. lithium (intermetallic alloys), which buffers drastically the volume expansion during the lithium alloying process, is employed. The aim of this work is to develop new processes for the synthesis of tin nanoparticles and tin-copper alloys in ionic liquid medium. Sn nanoparticles varying in size from 7 to 45 nm were synthesized, according to the cation-anion combination of the ionic liquid and from different metallic salts, as well as a nano-alloy compound, Cu6Sn5. The size of the nanoparticles is directly related to the nature of the anion although the cation has a privileged interaction with the metal surface of the nanoparticles. Once isolated from the ionic liquid, Sn and Cu6Sn5 nanoparticles have a core-shell architecture with a metallic or intermetallic crystalline core and an amorphous shell of tin oxides. A reversible conversion mechanism of the SnOx from the shell is highlighted for Sn@SnOx nanoparticles, with a high specific capacity of approximately 950 mAh.g-1. Sn-Cu@SnOx nano-alloys have a capacity close to the theoretical for an alloy mechanism at more than 530 mAh.g-1.

abstract: The automotive industry is committed to moving towards sustainable modes of transportation through electrified vehicles to improve the fuel economy with a reduced carbon footprint. In this context, battery-operated hybrid, plug-in hybrid and all-electric vehicles (EVs) are becoming commercially viable throughout the world. Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries with various active materials, electrolytes, and separators are currently being used for electric vehicle applications. Specifically, lithium-ion batteries with Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4 - LFP) and Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (Li(NiMnCo)O2 - NMC) cathodes are being studied mainly due to higher cycle life and higher energy density values, respectively. In the present work, 26650 Li-ion batteries with LFP and NMC cathodes were evaluated for Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) applications, using the Federal Urban Driving Schedule (FUDS) to discharge the batteries with 20 A current in simulated Arizona, USA weather conditions (50 ⁰C & <10% RH). In addition, 18650 lithium-ion batteries (LFP cathode material) were evaluated under PHEV mode with 30 A current to accelerate the ageing process, and to monitor the capacity values and material degradation. To offset the high initial cost of the batteries used in electric vehicles, second-use of these retired batteries is gaining importance, and the possibility of second-life use of these tested batteries was also examined under constant current charge/discharge cycling at 50 ⁰C. The capacity degradation rate under the PHEV test protocol for batteries with NMC-based cathode (16% over 800 cycles) was twice the degradation compared to batteries with LFP-based cathode (8% over 800 cycles), reiterating the fact that batteries with LFP cathodes have a higher cycle life compared to other lithium battery chemistries. Also, the high frequency resistance measured by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) was found to increase significantly with cycling, leading to power fading for both the NMC- as well as LFP-based batteries. The active materials analyzed using X-ray diffraction (XRD) showed no significant phase change in the materials after 800 PHEV cycles. For second-life tests, these batteries were subjected to a constant charge-discharge cycling procedure to analyze the capacity degradation and materials characteristics. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Materials Science and Engineering 2017

Le besoin croissant de batteries à ions lithium dans notre société exige le développement de matériaux d'électrode positive, avec des exigences spécifiques en termes de densité énergétique, de coût et de durabilité. Dans ce but, nous avons exploré quatre composés à base de sulfate: un fluorosulfate - LiCuSO4F et une famille d'oxysulfates - Fe2O(SO4)2, Li2Cu2O(SO4)2 and Li2VO(SO4)2. Leur synthèse, structure et performances électrochimiques sont présentées pour la première fois. Étant électrochimiquement inactif, LiCuSO4F présente une structure triplite ordonnée qui est distincte des autres fluorosulfates. L'activité électrochimique des composés oxysulfate a été explorée face au lithium. Plus spécifiquement, Fe2O(SO4)2 délivre une capacité réversible d'environ 125 mA∙h/g à 3.0 V par rapport à Li+/Li0; Li2VO(SO4)2 et Li2Cu2O(SO4)2 présentent respectivement les potentiels les plus élevés de 4.7 V vs. Li+/Li0 parmi les composés à base de V et de Cu. Enfin, la phase Li2Cu2O(SO4)2 révèle la possibilité d'une activité électrochimique anionique dans une électrode positive polyanionique. Leurs propriétés physiques, telles que les conductivités ioniques et les propriétés magnétiques, sont également rapportées. Dans l'ensemble, les oxysulfates sont intéressants à étudier en tant qu'électrodes positives polyanioniques pour les batteries à ions lithium. / The increasing demand of our society for Li-ion batteries calls for the development of positive electrode materials, with specific requirements in terms of energy density, cost, and sustainability. In such a context, we explored four sulfate based compounds: a fluorosulfate – LiCuSO4F, and a family of oxysulfates – Fe2O(SO4)2, Li2Cu2O(SO4)2 and Li2VO(SO4)2. Herein their synthesis, structure, and electrochemical performances are presented for the first time. Being electrochemically inactive, LiCuSO4F displays an ordered triplite structure which is distinct from other fluorosulfates. The electrochemical activity of the oxysulfate compounds was explored towards lithium. Specifically, Fe2O(SO4)2 delivers a sustained reversible capacity of about 125 mA∙h/g at 3.0 V vs. Li+/Li0; Li2VO(SO4)2 and Li2Cu2O(SO4)2 respectively exhibit the highest potential of 4.7 V vs. Li+/Li0 among V- and Cu- based compounds. Last but not least, the Li2Cu2O(SO4)2 phase reveals the possibility of anionic electrochemical activity in a polyanionic positive electrode. Their physical properties, such as ionic conductivities and magnetic properties are also reported. Overall, this makes oxysulfates interesting to study as polyanionic positive electrodes for Li-ion batteries.

Le silicium est un matériau étudié depuis plusieurs années comme une sérieuse alternative au graphite dans les batteries Li-ion. Ce travail de thèse vise à développer des approches alternatives et complémentaires à celles déjà existantes afin de mieux comprendre les mécanismes de lithiation et de dégradation. L'analyse croisée entre plusieurs techniques, principalement FIB-ToF-SIMS, Auger, XPS et FIB-MEB, point central de l'étude, nécessite la mise en place de protocoles spécifiques prenant en compte la forte réactivité des échantillons lithiés. En premier lieu, un couplage entre ToF-SIMS et XPS sur des couches minces de silicium, permet de mettre en évidence la présence d'une phase riche en lithium ségrégée à l'interface entre la couche de matériau actif et le collecteur de courant en cuivre. Un mécanisme particulier de lithiation du silicium, basé sur l'existence de chemins de diffusion rapide pour le lithium, est suggéré. La réalisation de coupes FIB effectuées in situ dans la chambre d'analyse du ToF-SIMS sur des électrodes à base de poudre micrométrique de Si permet ensuite de proposer un mécanisme de lithiation analogue à celui mis en évidence précédemment. En outre, la présence de grains déconnectés du réseau percolant de l'électrode au cours du cyclage et piégeant le lithium est mise en évidence et contribue à la défaillance rapide de la batterie. Enfin, la méthodologie développée est appliquée à l'étude d'électrodes composées de Si nanométrique et de composite Si/C. Elle participe à l'établissement d'un modèle de croissance de SEI à la surface de grains de silicium nanométriques et permet d'identifier les raisons de la défaillance de ces électrodes. / Silicon is a serious option to replace graphite in anodes for Li-ion batteries since it offers a specific capacity almost ten times higher. However, silicon anodes suffer from a drastic capacity fading, making it unusable after a few cycles. The work presented here aims at the development of new alternative and complementary approaches to those currently used, in order to better understand lithiation and degradation mechanisms. These methods are based on cross-analysis between several surface characterizations techniques, including FIB-ToF-SIMS, AES, XPS and FIB-MEB, which require specific procedures to deal with the extreme sensitivity of lithiated materials. Coupling XPS and ToF-SIMS on silicon thin films revealed the presence of a Li-rich phase segregated at the interface between silicon and Cu current collector. A mechanism based on fast diffusion paths for lithium is suggested. In situ FIB milling, performed in the analysis chamber of the ToF-SIMS on anodes using micrometer-sized silicon particles, revealed a similar mechanism involving fast diffusion paths for lithium. Additional TEM observations suggest that, in the case of micrometer-sized particles, these paths result from sub-grain boundaries. Additionally, the presence of Li trapped in Si particles which are disconnected from the conductive grid along cycling is shown, contributing to the poor battery lifespan. Finally, the developed method has been applied to electrodes based on nanometer-sized Si particles and Si/C composite. Despite of the small size of the involved particles, it is possible to get information about SEI growth on the surface of nano-sized silicon particles and to identify causes of failure.

L’amélioration des systèmes de stockage d’énergie représente un défi majeur de la transition vers les véhicules électriques et les énergies renouvelables. Les accumulateurs Li-ion, qui ont déjà conquis le marché de l’électronique portatif, constitueront la technologie dominante pour réaliser cet objectif, et sont donc l’objet d’intense recherches afin d’améliorer leurs performances, en particulier en termes de capacité. Parmi les stratégies les plus prometteuse pour augmenter la capacité des matériaux de cathodes, beaucoup d’espoir est placé dans la préparation de matériaux riches en lithium, qui combinent l’activité électrochimique des cations (métaux de transitions) et des anions (oxygène). Cependant, l’activation des propriétés redox de l’oxygène est accompagnée de plusieurs problèmes qui freinent le développement industriel de ces matériaux. Il est donc nécessaire d’obtenir de solides connaissances fondamentales sur le phénomène de redox anionique pour résoudre ces problèmes. En utilisant des matériaux modèles à base d’iridium, ce travail explore comment l’activité de l’oxygène est influencé par son environnement local. Les propriétés électrochimiques des composés Na2IrO3 et Na(Li1/3Ir2/3)O2 sont étudiés afin de comprendre l’impact de la nature de l’ion alcalin. L’influence du ratio Li/M dans les oxydes de structure NaCl est étudié à travers la synthèse d’un nouveau composé de formule Li3IrO4, qui présente la plus haute capacité réversible parmi les matériaux d’insertion utilisés comme cathode. Cette famille de matériau est finalement étendue à des phases contenant des protons par une simple méthode d’échange cationique, et les propriétés électrochimiques d’un nouveau composé H3+xIrO4 sont étudiées, dévoilant de très bonnes propriétés de stockage de puissance en milieu aqueux. / Improving energy storage stands as a key challenge to facilitate the transition to electric vehicles and renewable energy sources in the next years. Li-ion batteries, which have already conquered the portable electronic market, will be the leading technology to achieve this goal and are therefore the focus of intense research activities to improve their performances, especially in terms of capacity. Among the most promising strategies to obtain high capacity cathode materials, the preparation of Li-rich materials combining the redox activity of cations (transition metals) and anions (oxygen) attracts considerable interest. However, activation of anionic redox in these high capacity materials comes with several issues that need to be solved prior their implementation in the energy storage market. Deep fundamental understanding of anionic redox is therefore required to go forward. Using model systems based on iridium, this work explores how the oxygen local environment can play a role on the activation of anionic redox. The electrochemical properties of Na2IrO3 and Na(Li1/3Ir2/3)O2 phases are studied to understand the impact of the alkali nature. The influence of the Li/M ratio in rocksalt oxides is investigated with the synthesis of a new material Li3IrO4, which presents the highest reversible capacity among intercalation cathode materials. The rich electrochemical properties of this family of iridate materials are finally extended by preparing proton-based materials through a simple ion-exchange reaction and the electrochemical properties of a new H3+xIrO4 material are presented, with high rate capability performances.

The aim of this work is to describe final properties of the electrodes based on the amount of pressure used during its production. In the theoretical part of this work, secondary electrochemical accumulators are described, with the focus on Li-ion accumulators. In the main part of this work, the production of Li-ion accumulators, with usage of different pressures during its production is described. In the final part of this work, the examination of these created cells for the classification of the optimal production pressure is described.

State-of-the-art Li-ion cathode materials are based on LiMO2 (M=Ni, Mn, Co) layered transition metal oxides (denoted NMC) with Ni-rich composition because of their high specific capacity. Yet, these materials suffer from poor capacity retention due to crack formation during de-/lithiation cycling. Particle cracking leads to exposure of new electrode surface which leads to Li-inventory loss, increased side reactions, and electric disconnection. Quantification of the extent of cracking is therefore desirable, especially during in situ whilst cycling of the Li-ion cell. Herein, we evaluate and improve an analytical methodology based on electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) in order to estimate the changes in electrochemically active surface area of both poly- and single-crystalline Ni0.8Mn0.1Co0.1(NMC811) active materials. A transmission-line model (TLM) applied to both non-blocking and blocking electrode condition was utilized in order to deconvolute and interpret the acquired experimental data. Fits of the complex TLM equivalent-circuits to the impedance spectra was facilitated by developing a global stochastic iterative function based on local multivariate optimization. Impedance analysis during short- term cycling showed that the single-crystalline NMC811 suffered from less particle cracking and side reactions compared to polycrystalline NMC811, which was also confirmed from post-mortem gas adsorption analysis. A novel approach to estimate the extent of particle cracking in commercial Li-ion cells by utilizing an empirically strong positive correlation between the charge-transfer capacitance and resistance was proposed. The work presented herein demonstrates the unique prospects of the EIS methodology in the development and research of future rechargeable batteries