Artificial brightness of the night sky caused by the backscatter of artificial light in the atmosphere is a consequence of ongoing urbanization. Skyglow covers 88 % of Europe’s surface and poses significant threats to biodiversity. Extensive research on responses of bats to direct light pollution already revealed significant impacts. However, evidence for the influence of skyglow is scarce. Therefore, this study investigates the effects of skyglow on bat activity patterns, namely Pipistrellus pygmaeus and Myotis species, in a rural area outside of Stockholm, Sweden. Additionally, the analysis includes the role of local habitat structures and landscape composition at multiple scales for both activity rate and timing of emergence.The two focal species showed diverging behaviour in their main habitat on the local scale. While Myotis spp. emergence was delayed by about half an hour above the water surface, P. pygmaeus appeared about 20 minutes earlier in forest edges under brighter night skies. Landscape-level skyglow significantly delays the emergence of Myotis spp. above water surfaces by 18 minutes, but P. pygmaeus did not respond to skyglow at the landscape-level. Both, Myotis species and P. pygmaeus, appeared earlier in forest edges than above water surfaces. Evidence on skyglow affecting bat activity rates was weak. Here, local habitat and landscape structure were more important for both species. The total length of all forest edges decreased bat activity at most scales, while activity was lower with the proportion of water and open land at different scales. In conclusion, bat conservation programmes need to consider the effect of skyglow as well as landscape characteristics.

At present, light pollution is one of the fastest growing types of environmental pollution, mainly due to increased use of artificial light during the dark hours of the day. There are especially four factors that contribute to light pollution; glare,skyglow, light trespass and clutter. Digital billboards are becoming more common in urban environments and cause all these types of light pollution. The newest type of digital billboard shows a series of very bright images that change every few seconds. Although digital billboards become more common in the urban environment, there is very little research on how it affects people living adjacent to digital billboards. The majority of the research available is about how traffic safety is affected. It is important to study how traffic safety is affected, but it is an environment where people stay for shorter periods of time. Light, and light pollution, can affect people both physically and mentally, and therefore the lack of research on how the housing environment is affected must be addressed. The purpose of the study is to investigate how the living environment is affected by a digital sign, and if it is affected, how do residents relate to it? The results from the study can be used to discuss guidelines for how digital signs should be planned for urban environments to minimize discomfort. Prevention is important in order to avoid a negative impact on human health. To investigate whether light from digital billboard affects people's living environment, a case study with a quantitative approach was performed. The study was conducted in a residential area adjacent to a digital sign. The residents were contacted and asked to fill in a questionnaire with questions about their living environment and their attitude towards the digital sign. The results show that the resident living closest to the digital sign is affected the most. How the living environment is affected depends to a large extent on the placement of the sign in relation to the residence. Conclusions that can be drawn based on the results are that the respondents most affected live within a 30-degree angle seen from the sign. Many of the problems that arise due to digital billboards are due to lack of knowledge and shortcomings in planning. Lack of research and deficiencies in the signage programs make it difficult to plan suitable installations. To cause minimal discomfort, no digital signs should be placed directly in front of a residential building. / I dagsläget är ljusföroreningar en av de snabbast växande typerna av miljöföroreningar främst på grund av ökad användning av artificiellt ljus under dygnets mörka timmar. Det är framförallt fyra faktorer som bidrar till ljusföroreningar; bländning, himmelssken, ljusintrång och ljusansamlingar. Digitala skyltar blir allt vanligare i urbana miljöer och orsakar alla dessa typer av ljusföroreningar. Den nyaste typen av digitala skyltar visar en serie av väldigt ljusa bilder som byts med några sekunders mellanrum. Trots att digitala skyltar blir ett vanligare inslag i stadsmiljön finns det väldigt lite forskning om hur det påverkar människor som bor i anslutning till digitala skyltar. Majoriteten av forskningen som finns handlar om hur trafiksäkerheten påverkas. Det är viktigt att studera hur trafiksäkerheten påverkas men det är en miljö där människor vistas under kortare perioder. Ljus, och ljusföroreningar, kan påverka människor både fysiskt och psykiskt och därför måste bristen på forskning om hur boendemiljön påverkas åtgärdas. Syftet med studien är att undersöka hur boendemiljön påverkas av en digital skylt, och om den påverkas, hur förhåller de boende sig till det. Resultaten från studien kan användas för att diskutera riktlinjer för hur digitala skyltar ska planeras in i stadsmiljön för att minimera obehag. Att arbeta förebyggande är viktigt för att undvika en negativ påverkan på människors hälsa. För att undersöka om ljus från digitala skyltar påverkar människors boendemiljö utfördes en fallstudie med kvantitativ ansats. Studien utfördes i ett bostadsområde som låg i anslutning till en digital skylt. De boende kontaktades och ombads fylla i ett enkätformulär med frågor om sin boendemiljö samt attityd till den digitala skylten. Resultatet visar att de som bor närmast den digitala skylten påverkas mest. Hur boendemiljön påverkas beror till väldigt stor del på skyltens placering i förhållande till bostaden. Slutsatser som kan dras baserat på resultatet är att de respondenter som påverkas mest bor inom en 30-gradig vinkel sett från skylten. Många av de problem som uppstår på grund av digitala skyltar beror på okunskap och brister vid planeringen. Avsaknad av forskning och brister i de skyltprogram som finns gör det svårt att planera lämpliga installationer. För att orsaka minimalt obehag bör inga digitala skyltar placeras direkt framför ett bostadshus.

In den letzten Jahren ist das Bewusstsein für die Thematik der zunehmenden Lichtverschmutzung weltweit und auch in Deutschland gestiegen. Mittlerweile befassen sich nicht mehr nur Astronom:innen und Biolog:innen mit den Auswirkungen der künstlichen Nachthelligkeit. Auch Beleuchtungsplanung, Stadtverwaltung und Politik suchen nach Wegen, der Problematik zu begegnen. Die Landschaftsplanung als Fachplanung des Naturschutzes in Deutschland hat die Aufgabe, Natur und Landschaft sowie Auswirkungen anthropogener Aktivitäten auf diese zu analysieren und zu bewerten. Künstliche Beleuchtung bewirkt nach aktuellen Forschungen negative Effekte insbesondere auf die Schutzgüter Arten und Biotope sowie Landschaftsgestalt und Erholung. An Lichtquellen aufgrund von Hitze und Erschöpfung sterbende Insekten, Fledermäuse, die am Ausflug aus ihren Quartieren gehindert werden, ein erhöhtes Krebsrisiko für den Menschen oder die Behinderung von Wissenschaft und Forschung der Astronomie sind nur einige Beispiele für negative Auswirkungen. Für die Analyse und Bewertung solcher Belastungen im Rahmen der Landschaftsplanung fehlen jedoch methodische Ansätze. Die Entwicklung ebenjener wird durch die Komplexität der Thematik sowie die Bandbreite an beteiligten Fachbereichen und Akteur:innen erschwert. Darüber hinaus fehlen belastbare Grenzwerte aufgrund mangelnder Forschung. Die vorliegende Arbeit widmet sich der Entwicklung eines methodischen Ansatzes, der es ermöglicht, Auswirkungen von Beleuchtung auf Natur und Landschaft im Rahmen der kommunalen Landschaftsplanung zu ermitteln und adäquate Maßnahmen anzusetzen. Konkret wird dabei die Fragen behandelt, wie sich Lichtbelastungen für die betroffenen Schutzgüter der Landschaftsplanung ermitteln, räumlich verorten und mittels Maßnahmen verhindern, mindern oder beseitigen lassen. Der Ablauf der Methodik gliedert sich in die drei Schritte: A - Analyse der Beleuchtungssituation, B - Bewertung der Lichtbelastung für Arten und Biotope und C - Bewertung der Lichtbelastung für Landschaftsgestalt und Erholung. Die entwickelte Methodik wird in ArcGIS Pro durchgeführt, nutzt leicht zugängliche Datengrundlagen und erfordert kein komplexes Zusatzwissen des/der Planers:in zum Thema ‚Licht‘. Ein Handlungsleitfaden am Ende der Arbeit ermöglicht eine schnelle Übersicht und eine einfache Durchführung der einzelnen Schritte.:1 Einleitung Teil I Grundlagen 2 Planungskontext Deutschland 2.1 Das Planungssystem 2.2 Betrachtungsgegenstand der Landschaftsplanung 2.2.1 Definitionen von ‚Umwelt‘, ‚Natur‘ und ‚Landschaft‘ 2.2.2 Das Konzept der Schutzgüter 2.2.3 Das Schutzgut Arten und Biotope 2.2.4 Das Schutzgut Landschaftsgestalt und Erholung 2.3 Der kommunale Landschaftsplan 3 Bewertungsmethoden in der vorsorgenden Landschaftsplanung 3.1 Definitionen 3.2 Anforderungen an Bewertungsmethoden 3.3 Bewertungsmaßstab und Zielerfüllungsgrad 3.3.1 Leitlinien und Leitbilder mit Bezug zu künstlicher Beleuchtung 3.3.2 Umweltqualitätsziele und -standards 4 Licht und seine physikalischen Eigenschaften 4.1 Begriffliche Abgrenzung 4.2 Beschreibung und Eigenschaften von Licht 4.3 Wichtige physikalische Größen zur Beschreibung von Licht 5 Natürliches Licht und Umwelt 5.1 Natürliche Lichtrhythmen 5.2 Interaktionen zwischen Licht und Mensch 5.3 Interaktionen zwischen Licht und Tieren 5.4 Interaktionen zwischen Licht und Pflanzen 6 Künstliche Beleuchtung im Außenraum 6.1 Historische Entwicklung künstlicher Beleuchtung 6.2 Aufgabe der Beleuchtung im Außenraum 6.3 Arten künstlicher Beleuchtung im Außenraum 6.4 Charakteristik von Beleuchtung im Außenraum 6.5 Erfassung und Planung von Beleuchtung 7 Lichtverschmutzung 7.1 Entstehung, Begriffsbestimmung und korrelierende Messgrößen 7.2 Aktueller Stand der Lichtverschmutzung und rechtlicher Rahmen 7.2.1 Weltweit 7.2.2 Europa 7.2.3 Deutschland 7.3 Kritische Betrachtung der aktuellen Diskussion und bestimmender Akteure 8 Einfluss von Lichtverschmutzung auf die Schutzgüter der Landschaftsplanung 8.1 Arten und Biotope 8.1.1 Methodik 8.1.2 Ergebnisse 8.1.3 Zusammenfassung der Auswirkungen auf das Schutzgut Arten und Biotope 8.1.4 Diskussion der Datenlage 8.2 Einfluss auf Landschaftsgestalt und Erholung 8.2.1 Stand der Forschung und Methodik 8.2.2 Ergebnisse: Auswirkungen von Beleuchtung 8.2.3 Zusammenfassung der Auswirkungen auf Landschaftsgestalt und Erholung 8.2.4 Diskussion der Datenlage 8.3 Präzisierung der Minderungsmöglichkeiten und Best Practice Beispiele 8.3.1 Minderung der Negativeffekte 8.3.2 Bewusstseinsstärkung 8.3.3 Möglichkeiten auf konzeptionellen Planungsebenen 8.3.4 Best-Practice-Beispiele 9 Lichtverschmutzung in der vorsorgenden Landschaftsplanung 9.1 Einflussmöglichkeiten 9.2 Aktueller Stand der Beachtung 9.2.1 Methodik 9.2.2 Ergebnisse 9.2.3 Fazit aus der Plananalyse 9.3 Ansätze für Analyse und Bewertung von Lichtverschmutzung für Natur und Landschaft 9.3.1 Bewertungsmaßstäbe zur Problematik Lichtverschmutzung 9.3.2 Methodenansätze aus der Forschung Teil II – Methodenentwicklung 10 Einführung zur Methodenentwicklung 10.1 Ziel und zugrundeliegende Fragestellung 10.2 Ablauf 10.3 Anwendungsraum und Anforderungen 10.4 Definitionen 10.5 Freital als Beispielplanungsgebiet A – Analyse der Beleuchtung 11 Einführung zu Karte A 11.1 Fragestellung 11.2 Kriterien zur Eignung von Methodenansätzen für die Landschaftsplanung 11.3 Bestehende Methodenansätze zur Messung der Beleuchtungssituation (Darstellung der Lichtimmission) 11.3.1 Messung der Bodenbeleuchtungsstärke 11.3.2 Leuchtdichtemessungen 11.3.3 Messung der Himmelshelligkeit 11.3.4 Erfassung mittels sozialempirischer Methoden 11.3.5 Messungen aus der Luft (Befliegung) 11.4 Bestehende Methodenansätze zur Modellierung der Beleuchtungssituation 11.4.1 Mathematische Modelle auf Grundlage der Stadtlage und -größe 11.4.2 Abschätzung der Beleuchtungssituation auf Grundlage von Satellitendaten 11.4.3 Modellierung auf Grundlage von Daten zu Lichtquellen 11.5 Methoden unter Nutzung existierender Datengrundlagen 11.5.1 Lichtverschmutzungsatlas 11.6 Zusammenfassung und Auswahl eines Methodenansatzes für die Landschaftsplanung 11.7 Eingangsdaten 11.7.1 Daten zu Lichtemittenten 11.7.2 Daten zur künstlichen Himmelsaufhellung 11.7.3 Sonstige 12 Layer A1 – Lichtemittenten-Hotspots 12.1 Hotspots auf Grundlage des Leuchtenkatasters 12.1.1 Leuchtenausgestaltung 12.1.2 Lichtpunktdichte 12.2 Hotspots auf Grundlage der Landnutzungen 12.3 Darstellung der Hotspots 13 Layer A2 – Modellierung der direkten Einstrahlung aus Lichtemittenten 13.1 Definition des Modellierungsgegenstandes 13.1.1 Lichttechnische Größe 13.1.2 Abgrenzung beleuchteter Flächen 13.1.3 Zusammenfassung Modellierungsgegenstand 13.2 Umsetzung im GIS 13.2.1 Puffer 13.2.2 Sichtfeldanalysen 13.3 Beurteilung der Modellierungsergebnisse 13.3.1 Messungen 13.3.2 Verbal-argumentative Einschätzung der Eignung der Datengrundlage 13.3.3 Verbal-argumentative Einschätzung Werkzeuganwendung in ArcGIS Pro 13.4 Auswahl und Darstellung einer Variante 14 Layer A3 – Darstellung der Himmelshelligkeit 15 Zusammenfassende Beschreibung der Beleuchtungssituation (Karte A) B – Bewertung Arten und Biotope 16 B1 - Bewertung der Lichtempfindlichkeit von Arten und Biotopen 16.1 Definition und Bewertungsziel 16.2 verwendete Datengrundlagen 16.3 Bestandsbeschreibung 16.3.1 Landnutzung und Biotoptypen 16.3.2 Bestehende Schutzgebiete und Vorgaben aus übergeordneter Planung 16.3.3 Artvorkommen im Untersuchungsgebiet 16.4 Zielartenkonzepte 16.4.1 Vorteile von Zielartenkonzepten 16.4.2 Kritikpunkte an der Verwendung von Zielarten 16.4.3 Die Auswahl von Zielarten 16.4.4 Zielarten für die Bewertung der Lichtsensitivität 16.5 Auswahl und Beschreibung der Zielarten für Freital 16.5.1 Vögel 16.5.2 Fledermäuse 16.5.3 Insekten 16.6 Layer B1.1 - Empfindlichkeit gegenüber direkter Beleuchtung aufgrund von Zielartenvorkommen 16.6.1 Sensitivitätsindex 16.6.2 Anpassung des Sensitivitätsindex 16.7 Layer B1.2 - Empfindlichkeit gegenüber direkter Beleuchtung weiterer Flächen 16.7.1 Schützenswerte Lebensräume 16.7.2 Flächen der Biotopvernetzung 16.8 Layer B1.3 - Empfindlichkeit gegenüber Himmelsaufhellung 16.8.1 Vogelzugrouten 16.8.2 Größere zusammenhängende Gewässerkomplexe 16.9 Zusammenfassende Beschreibung der lichtempfindlichen Flächen für Arten und Biotope (Karte B1) 17 B2 - Konfliktanalyse und Maßnahmenkonzeption 17.1 Layer B2.1 Minderung bestehender Belastungen 17.1.1 Konflikte mit beleuchteten Flächen 17.1.2 Konflikte mit Raum- und Himmelsaufhellung 17.2 Layer B2.2 Schutz und Entwicklung von Flächen 17.3 weitere Maßnahmen ohne Verortung 17.4 Zusammenfassung des Ziel- und Maßnahmenkonzeptes (Karte B2) C - Bewertung der Lichtempfindlichkeit von Landschaftsgestalt und Erholung 18 C1 Bewertung der Lichtempfindlichkeit von Landschaftsgestalt und Erholung 18.1 Definition und Bewertungsziel 18.2 Im vorliegenden Fall verwendete Datengrundlagen 18.3 Bestandsbeschreibung 18.3.1 Landschaftsbild 18.3.2 Erholung 18.3.3 Erlebbarkeit von natürlicher Dunkelheit und Sternenhimmel 18.4 Layer C1.1 – (kulturhistorisch) bedeutsame Orte der Himmelsbeobachtung 18.5 Layer C1.2 – Orte zum Erleben von Sternenhimmel und Dunkelheit 18.6 Zusammenfassende Beschreibung der lichtempfindlichen Flächen für Landschaftsgestalt und Erholung 19 C2 Konfliktanalyse und Maßnahmenkonzeption 19.1 Layer C2.1 – Minderung bestehender Belastungen 19.1.1 Konflikte mit beleuchteten Flächen 19.1.2 Konflikte mit Himmelsaufhellung 19.2 Layer C2.2 – Schutz und Entwicklung von Flächen 19.3 weitere Maßnahmen ohne Verortung 19.4 Zusammenfassung des Ziel- und Maßnahmenkonzeptes (Karte C2) Teil III – Zusammenfassung und Anleitung für die Durchführung in der Praxis 20 Zusammenfassung 20.1 Anleitung zur Durchführung in der Praxis 20.1.1 Analyse der Beleuchtungssituation vor Ort (Karte A) 20.1.2 Arten und Biotope (Karten B1 und B2) 20.1.3 Landschaftsgestalt und Erholung (Karten C1 und C2) 20.2 Diskussion 20.2.1 Praxistauglichkeit 20.2.2 Inhaltliche Richtigkeit 20.3 Fazit Quellenverzeichnis Danksagung Eidesstattliche Erklärung Anhang

El presente artículo de investigación tiene como objetivo proponer la incorporación de la contaminación lumínica, en el delito de alteración del ambiente o paisaje previsto en el artículo 313 del Código Penal peruano, con el fin de sancionar las actividades que producen iluminación artificial que causan daño al medio ambiente y son realizadas por personas naturales y jurídicas contraviniendo la Ley N° 31316 o los mandatos emitidos por las entidades de competencia ambiental. Para lograr tal objetivo ha sido necesario describir el impacto que genera la contaminación lumínica tanto en la salud de las personas como en la biodiversidad; también se realizó una revisión a la normativa en derecho comparado y nacional sobre esta forma de contaminación precisando a las autoridades competentes de cada país; asimismo, se explicó los fundamentos que darán sustento para incorporar esta contaminación como el nuevo elemento en el tipo penal contemplado en el artículo 313 del Código Penal, teniendo como propósito que se preserve el medioambiente y que el derecho de las personas a gozar de un ambiente sano y equilibrado no se vulnere. Por lo tanto, la metodología que se ha aplicado es el método cualitativo a través de la recopilación documental y técnica del fichaje para demostrar que si se cumplió con los resultados esperados en la hipótesis formulada. / The purpose of this research article is to propose the incorporation of light pollution in the crime of alteration of the environment or landscape provided in Article 313 of the Peruvian Penal Code, in order to punish the activities that produce artificial lighting that cause damage to the environment and are carried out by natural and legal persons in contravention of Law N° 31316 or the mandates issued by the entities of environmental competence. To achieve this objective it has been necessary to describe the impact generated by light pollution on the health of people and on biodiversity; also, a review was made of the regulations in comparative and national law on this form of pollution, specifying the competent authorities of each country; likewise, the foundations that will support the incorporation of this pollution as a new element in the criminal type contemplated in article 313 of the Criminal Code were explained, with the purpose of preserving the environment and that the right of people to enjoy a healthy and balanced environment is not violated. Therefore, the methodology that has been applied is the qualitative method through the documentary compilation and the technique of the file to demonstrate that the results expected in the formulated hypothesis were fulfilled.

Hotet mot den biologiska mångfalden ökar i takt med urbaniseringen. En konsekvens av livet i staden är de ljusföroreningar som artificiellt ljus på natten (ALAN) ger upphov till. För att mitigera ljusföroreningarnas negativa effekter på människan och biologisk mångfald kan mörker användas som resurs i samhällsplanering. Denna studie syftar till att utforska vad svenska kommuner ser för möjligheter och hinder med att integrera mörka områden i samhällsplaneringen för att bevara biologisk mångfald. Vidare syftar studien till att utforska vilka åtgärder som behövs för att överkomma identifierade hinder. Genom en kombination av semistrukturerade intervjuer med personer som arbetar med ljussättning i fem svenska kommuner och innehållsanalys av de valda kommunernas belysningsprogram  identifierar studien faktorer som påverkar arbetet med mörka områden. Frågan är komplex då många aspekter ständigt måste vägas mot varandra när belsut om belysning tas. Studien fann att medborgarnas efterfrågan av belysning ur ett trygghetsperspektiv i kombination med bristande kunskap kan stå i vägen för arbetet med mörka områden. Utbildning för medborgare och anställda, samarbete inom och mellan myndigheter och kommuner, samt nationella riktlinjer är åtgärder som möjliggör arbete med mörker. Dessa åtgärder är beroende av vidare forskning inom området, från ett holistiskt perspektiv. Studien bidrar med insikter som kan vägleda framtida samhällsplanering och belysningsstrategier för att främja en balans mellan människans behov av ljus och bevarandet av biologisk mångfald. / The threat to biological diversity keeps increasing with urbanization. One consequence of life in the city is the light pollution caused by artificial light at night (ALAN). To mitigate the negative effects of light pollution on humans and biodiversity, darkness can be used as a resource in urban planning. This study aims to explore what Swedish municipalities see as opportunities and obstacles in integrating dark areas into urban planning to preserve biodiversity. Furthermore, the study aims to explore what measures are needed to overcome identified obstacles. Through a combination of semi-structured interviews with people who work with lighting in five Swedish municipalities and content analysis of the selected municipalities' lighting programs, the study identifies factors that influence the work with dark areas. The issue is complex as many aspects must constantly be weighed against each other when making decisions about lighting. The study found that citizens' demand for lighting from a safety point of view combined with a lack of knowledge can stand in the way of implementing dark areas. Education for citizens and employees, cooperation within and between authorities and municipalities, as well as national guidelines are measures that enable working with darkness. These measures are dependent on further research in the field, from a holistic perspective. The study contributes insights that can guide future urban planning and lighting strategies to promote a balance between human needs for light and conserving biodiversity.

O funcionamento dos ecossistemas é o fluxo de matéria e de energia ao longo dos seus componentes bióticos e abióticos. A manutenção de tal funcionamento é crucial para promover os serviços ecossistêmicos dos quais a humanidade depende. Atividades antrópicas, como a agricultura e a urbanização podem alterá-los significativamente e, por isso, o entendimento dos impactos positivos e negativos de tais alterações bem como o desenvolvimento de ferramentas de avaliação da biodiversidade são importantes para a conservação. A diversidade funcional é um componente da diversidade biológica que leva em conta o papel que cada espécie desempenha no ecossistema e, portanto, deve refletir o funcionamento do ecossistema de forma mais acurada. Esta tese teve por objetivos relacionar o funcionamento do ecossistema e os seus serviços a ações antrópicas, bem como propor a abordagem funcional como indicadora da biodiversidade de áreas naturais. No primeiro capítulo, avalio padrões espaciais e temporais da exposição dos tipos de vegetação que ocorrem no Brasil à luz artificial, um dos principais símbolos da urbanização e da vida moderna. Os resultados mostram que a maioria deles apresenta alguma porcentagem de sua área expostos à luz artificial. Em alguns deles, porém, ainda é possível encontrar o brilho natural do céu noturno, o que nos permite sugerir a elaboração de políticas de desenvolvimento de distribuição de luz com foco no mínimo impacto, ao contrário das políticas de mitigação adotadas por países onde a iluminação é excessivamente difundida. No segundo capítulo mapeio padrões espaciais e temporais da provisão de dois serviços ecossistêmicos (polinização e estoque de carbono) e um serviço ambiental (espaço para viver) e avalio os impactos da agricultura sobre estes serviços, na área coberta pelo cerrado, na região central do Brasil. Os serviços ecossistêmicos avaliados descaíram significativamente ao longo do tempo e a região conhecida como MATOPIBA (entre os estados do Maranhão, Tocantins, Piauí e Bahia) foi identificada como um importante remanescente. Por isso, recomendo a criação de unidades de conservação de proteção integral na área. Identifiquei também sobreposição da disponibilidade destes serviços com áreas indígenas, o que ressalta a importância da manutenção destas áreas para a disponibilidade dos serviços. No terceiro capítulo exploro, por meio de revisão bibliográfica, o status da diversidade funcional na literatura científica no campo da Conservação Biológica. Os resultados permitiram visualizar o paradigma da transferência de conhecimento e identificar o potencial desta abordagem para elaboração de indicadores da biodiversidade. Por fim, no quarto capítulo, estabeleço uma lista de espécies de plantas que podem ser indicadoras da diversidade funcional em áreas cobertas por cerradão no estado de São Paulo. Tais indicadores devem ser usados em conjunto para monitoramento e diagnóstico da biodiversidade quando o objetivo é manter o funcionamento do ecossistema. As conclusões do estudo contribuem para elucidar a interferência das atividades antrópicas nos ecossistemas naturais, para levantar formas de minimizá-los e para aprimorar as formas de avaliação da biodiversidade. / Ecosystem functioning is the flow of energy and matter through the biotic and abiotic ecosystems components. The maintenance of this functioning is essential to the ecosystem services provisioning upon which humans depend. Anthropogenic activities such as agriculture and urbanisation may change it. Thus, conservation strategies rely on the understanding of the positives and negatives impacts from this changes and on the development of measurements of biodiversity. Functional diversity is a biodiversity component which considers the role of each species in the ecosystem, and, as a consequence, may reflect the ecosystem functioning more accurately. This thesis aims the establishment of the relationships between ecosystem functioning, ecosystem services and anthrogenic activities as well as purpose functional approach as biodiversity indicator of natural areas. In the first chapter, I assessed spatial and temporal patterns of exposition of the Brazilian vegetation types to the artificial light which is one of the urbanisation symbols. The results show that most of them are affected by artificial light. However, in some of them it is still possible to find a natural sky background, which allow suggesting the formulation of light distribution policies focused on minimal impact instead of mitigation, as adopted by countries where light is excessively widespread. In the second chapter, I mapped spatial and temporal patterns of two ecosystem services provisioning (pollination and carbon stocks) and one environmental service (living space) and assessed the impacts of agriculture in these services in Cerrado area, in the central region of Brazil. The ecosystem services I assessed declined significatively over time and the MATOPIBA region (around Maranhão, Tocantins, Piaui, and Bahia States) was identified as an important remint. Thus I recommended the creation of strictly protected areas in that region. I also identify overlap of these services with indigenous land, highlighting its importance for the ecosystem services provisioning. In the third chapter I explored through literature survey, the status of functional diversity in the scientific literature related to the Biological Conservation field. The results allow visualise the paradigm of knowledge transfer and identify the potential use of this approach for developing indicators of biodiversity. Finally, in the fourth chapter, we established a list of plant species that are functional diversity indicators in cerradão areas in São Paulo State. These indicators should be use as a set for the monitoring and diagnosis of biodiversity when the goal is to maintaining ecosystem functioning. The conclusions of the study contribute to clarify some lack of knowledge concerned to the impacts of human activities on ecosystem functioning, to raise means to minimise them, and to improve means of ecological integrity assessment.

While roads can present weak to complete barriers to wildlife, depending on the animal and traffic volume, mitigations such as under-crossings and green bridges on highways at least partially increase the permeability of the landscape to some of these species. The few studies evaluating the effectiveness of these structures for at least three years typically focused on a single species. Here, we monitored the crossing structure under Boeckman Road, in Wilsonville Oregon, for wildlife activity across summer seasons for ten years, since construction of the road and subsequent opening to traffic. This long-term multi-species dataset, which includes monitoring when the road was closed to traffic has provided a unique opportunity. Wildlife activity was collected using sand track pads monitored during summer seasons from 2009 to 2018. Wildlife activity showed a significant community level response from year to year and species-specific responses to year, vegetation change, disturbance, detection area, and previous experimental additions of artificial light. Roads create barriers to animal movement through collisions and habitat fragmentation. Investigators have attempted to use traffic volume, the number of vehicles passing a point on a road segment, to predict effects to wildlife populations approximately linearly and along taxonomic lines; however, taxonomic groupings cannot provide sound predictions because closely related species often respond differently. We assess the role of wildlife behavioral responses to traffic volume as a tool to predict barrier effects from vehicle-caused mortality and avoidance, to provide an early warning system that recognizes traffic volume as a trigger for mitigation, and to better interpret roadkill data. We propose four categories of behavioral response based on the perceived danger to traffic: Nonresponders, Pausers, Speeders, and Avoiders. By considering a species' risk-avoidance response to traffic, managers can make more appropriate and timely decisions to mitigate effects before populations decline or become locally extinct. Barriers to animal movement can isolate populations, impacting their genetic diversity, susceptibility to disease, and access to resources. Barriers to movement may be caused by artificial light, but few studies have experimentally investigated the effects of artificial light on movement for a suite of terrestrial vertebrates. Therefore, we studied the effect of ecological light pollution on animal usage of a bridge under-road passage structure. On a weekly basis, sections of the structure were subjected to different light treatments including no light added, followed by a Reference period when lights were off in all the structure sections. Findings suggest that artificial light may be reducing habitat connectivity for some species though not providing a strong barrier for others. Through the work conducted herein we provide contributions to the understanding of how elements of the built environment impact wildlife communities ability to move across the landscape. Additionally, we provide new tools to support resource managers in barrier mitigation and connectivity planning. Habitat fragmentation effects are a complex set of issues that require resources and collaboration to reach meaningful solutions. The work presented here can also support decision-making, communication, and collaborative efforts that will ultimately result in on-the-ground impacts to reduce fragmentation effects and mitigate existing barriers effectively to promote the long-term viability of wildlife and the systems they depend on.

O funcionamento dos ecossistemas é o fluxo de matéria e de energia ao longo dos seus componentes bióticos e abióticos. A manutenção de tal funcionamento é crucial para promover os serviços ecossistêmicos dos quais a humanidade depende. Atividades antrópicas, como a agricultura e a urbanização podem alterá-los significativamente e, por isso, o entendimento dos impactos positivos e negativos de tais alterações bem como o desenvolvimento de ferramentas de avaliação da biodiversidade são importantes para a conservação. A diversidade funcional é um componente da diversidade biológica que leva em conta o papel que cada espécie desempenha no ecossistema e, portanto, deve refletir o funcionamento do ecossistema de forma mais acurada. Esta tese teve por objetivos relacionar o funcionamento do ecossistema e os seus serviços a ações antrópicas, bem como propor a abordagem funcional como indicadora da biodiversidade de áreas naturais. No primeiro capítulo, avalio padrões espaciais e temporais da exposição dos tipos de vegetação que ocorrem no Brasil à luz artificial, um dos principais símbolos da urbanização e da vida moderna. Os resultados mostram que a maioria deles apresenta alguma porcentagem de sua área expostos à luz artificial. Em alguns deles, porém, ainda é possível encontrar o brilho natural do céu noturno, o que nos permite sugerir a elaboração de políticas de desenvolvimento de distribuição de luz com foco no mínimo impacto, ao contrário das políticas de mitigação adotadas por países onde a iluminação é excessivamente difundida. No segundo capítulo mapeio padrões espaciais e temporais da provisão de dois serviços ecossistêmicos (polinização e estoque de carbono) e um serviço ambiental (espaço para viver) e avalio os impactos da agricultura sobre estes serviços, na área coberta pelo cerrado, na região central do Brasil. Os serviços ecossistêmicos avaliados descaíram significativamente ao longo do tempo e a região conhecida como MATOPIBA (entre os estados do Maranhão, Tocantins, Piauí e Bahia) foi identificada como um importante remanescente. Por isso, recomendo a criação de unidades de conservação de proteção integral na área. Identifiquei também sobreposição da disponibilidade destes serviços com áreas indígenas, o que ressalta a importância da manutenção destas áreas para a disponibilidade dos serviços. No terceiro capítulo exploro, por meio de revisão bibliográfica, o status da diversidade funcional na literatura científica no campo da Conservação Biológica. Os resultados permitiram visualizar o paradigma da transferência de conhecimento e identificar o potencial desta abordagem para elaboração de indicadores da biodiversidade. Por fim, no quarto capítulo, estabeleço uma lista de espécies de plantas que podem ser indicadoras da diversidade funcional em áreas cobertas por cerradão no estado de São Paulo. Tais indicadores devem ser usados em conjunto para monitoramento e diagnóstico da biodiversidade quando o objetivo é manter o funcionamento do ecossistema. As conclusões do estudo contribuem para elucidar a interferência das atividades antrópicas nos ecossistemas naturais, para levantar formas de minimizá-los e para aprimorar as formas de avaliação da biodiversidade. / Ecosystem functioning is the flow of energy and matter through the biotic and abiotic ecosystems components. The maintenance of this functioning is essential to the ecosystem services provisioning upon which humans depend. Anthropogenic activities such as agriculture and urbanisation may change it. Thus, conservation strategies rely on the understanding of the positives and negatives impacts from this changes and on the development of measurements of biodiversity. Functional diversity is a biodiversity component which considers the role of each species in the ecosystem, and, as a consequence, may reflect the ecosystem functioning more accurately. This thesis aims the establishment of the relationships between ecosystem functioning, ecosystem services and anthrogenic activities as well as purpose functional approach as biodiversity indicator of natural areas. In the first chapter, I assessed spatial and temporal patterns of exposition of the Brazilian vegetation types to the artificial light which is one of the urbanisation symbols. The results show that most of them are affected by artificial light. However, in some of them it is still possible to find a natural sky background, which allow suggesting the formulation of light distribution policies focused on minimal impact instead of mitigation, as adopted by countries where light is excessively widespread. In the second chapter, I mapped spatial and temporal patterns of two ecosystem services provisioning (pollination and carbon stocks) and one environmental service (living space) and assessed the impacts of agriculture in these services in Cerrado area, in the central region of Brazil. The ecosystem services I assessed declined significatively over time and the MATOPIBA region (around Maranhão, Tocantins, Piaui, and Bahia States) was identified as an important remint. Thus I recommended the creation of strictly protected areas in that region. I also identify overlap of these services with indigenous land, highlighting its importance for the ecosystem services provisioning. In the third chapter I explored through literature survey, the status of functional diversity in the scientific literature related to the Biological Conservation field. The results allow visualise the paradigm of knowledge transfer and identify the potential use of this approach for developing indicators of biodiversity. Finally, in the fourth chapter, we established a list of plant species that are functional diversity indicators in cerradão areas in São Paulo State. These indicators should be use as a set for the monitoring and diagnosis of biodiversity when the goal is to maintaining ecosystem functioning. The conclusions of the study contribute to clarify some lack of knowledge concerned to the impacts of human activities on ecosystem functioning, to raise means to minimise them, and to improve means of ecological integrity assessment.

Outdoor artificial light at night (ALAN) is raising concern as a possible cause of the loss of insect diversity. Due to a diurnal bias in standard methods in environmental monitoring and urban ecosystem service assessments, the issue has remained in the dark and especially relevant for nocturnal pollination, which is less well known. This umbrella review analyses the effects of light pollution on pollination services at night through a cascade framework. The report aims to gather understanding of the state of scientific knowledge to date of the combined interdisciplinary field of pollination, ecosystem services and light pollution. Findings show that outdoor lighting works as barriers and habitat fragmentation for nocturnal pollinators reducing flower visitation and pollen transport affecting plant reproduction. Integrating the understanding of stressors of light pollution and the benefits of darkness into urban land use planning have the possibility of improving the abilities of pollination services in a nightscape usually overlooked. Case studies on the benefits of darkness in the management of urban ecosystem services are of interest in future studies together with the mapping on the values of nocturnal pollination networks. / Nattbelysning utomhus har väckt oro som möjlig orsak till förlusten av insektsmångfalden. Det är särskilt relevant för nattliga pollinatörer, som är mindre känt. På grund av en partiskhet till att metoder för miljöövervakning och bedömningar av urbana ekosystemtjänster sker främst på dagen har problemet förblivit skymt i mörkret. Denna paraplygranskning analyserar effekterna av ljusföroreningar på pollineringstjänster på natten genom ett kaskadramverk. Rapporten syftar till att samla förståelsen för det vetenskapliga kunskapsläget inom det kombinerade tvärvetenskapliga området pollinering, ekosystemtjänster och ljusföroreningar. Resultat visar att utomhusbelysning fungerar som barriärer och fragmentering av livsmiljöer för nattaktiva pollinatörer, vilket minskar blombesök och pollentransport och i sin tur växternas reproduktion. Att integrera förståelsen för stressorer av ljusföroreningar och fördelarna med mörker i urban markanvändningsplanering ger möjligheter att stärka förmågan hos pollineringstjänster i ett nattlandskap som annars blivit förbisett. Fallstudier om fördelarna med mörker i förvaltningen av urbana ekosystemtjänster är av intresse i framtida studier tillsammans med kartläggningen av värdena av nattliga pollineringsnätverk.

Künstliches Licht in der Nacht (ALAN) entsteht in Zentren menschlicher Aktivität und erhellt die Nacht, wodurch biologische Rhythmen von Menschen und Wildtieren gestört werden können. Skyglow ist eine diffuse Aufhellung des Nachthimmels aufgrund von Reflexion und Streuung von ALAN, welche indirekt große Bereiche (vor-)städtischer Ökosysteme beleuchtet. Da sich Zentren menschlicher Aktivität häufig in der Nähe von Flüssen und Seen befinden, kann sich Skyglow unverhältnismäßig stark auf wildlebende Tiere in Süßwassergebieten auswirken. In drei Experimenten wurden die Auswirkungen von ALAN auf die Physiologie des Europäischen Flussbarsches untersucht. Die Fische wurden verschiedenen Versuchsbedingungen ausgesetzt: 1) niedrige ALAN-Intensitäten von 0,01, 0,1 und 1 lx unter kontrollierten Bedingungen, 2) höhere ALAN-Intensitäten von 1, 10 und 100 lx unter kontrollierten Bedingungen und 3) eine niedrige ALAN-Intensität von 0,06 lx in einem Feldexperiment. In den vorgestellten Experimenten unterdrückten niedrige ALAN-Intensitäten den nächtlichen Melatoninspiegel sowie teilweise Reproduktionshormone bei Weibchen. Höhere ALAN-Intensitäten verringerten das aktivste Schilddrüsenhormon und das relative Lebergewicht der Fische. Diese Arbeit zeigt physiologische Veränderungen bereits bei schwachen ALAN-Intensitäten, wie sie in großen Bereichen (vor-)städtischer Ökosysteme in Form von Skyglow vorkommen. Die empfindlichste Reaktionsvariable auf die Belastung durch ALAN bei Fischen ist der nächtliche Melatoninspiegel. Mögliche Wirkungen von ALAN auf andere physiologische Parameter können durch direkten Lichteinfall oder indirekt über reduziertes Melatonin ausgelöst werden. Diese Arbeit trägt zum Verständnis der Schwellenwerte für verschiedene physiologische Effekte durch eine mehrwöchige ALAN-Exposition bei. Schwellenwerte für ALAN-Intensitäten könnten zukünftig notwendige Deskriptoren für die Ausarbeitung von regulierenden Maßnahmen zur Reduzierung von Lichtverschmutzung liefern. / Artificial light at night (ALAN) is emitted from centers of human activities and increasingly brightens up nights, which can disturb biological rhythms of humans and wildlife. Skyglow is a diffuse brightening of the night sky due to reflection and scattering of ALAN, which indirectly illuminates large areas of (sub-)urban ecosystems. As centers of human activities are usually located close to rivers and lakes, skyglow may disproportionally affect wildlife of freshwater. Three experiments tested for effects of ALAN on the physiology of Eurasian perch. Fish were exposed 1) to low nocturnal illuminances of 0.01, 0.1 and 1 lx under controlled conditions, 2) to higher nocturnal illuminances of 1, 10 and 100 lx under controlled conditions, and 3) to low nocturnal illuminance of 0.06 lx in a field experiment. In the presented experiments, low nocturnal illuminance suppressed nocturnal melatonin production and reduced reproductive hormones to some extent in females. Higher nocturnal illuminance reduced the most active thyroid hormone and reduced relative liver weight of the fish. This thesis shows physiological changes already at very weak intensities of ALAN, like they occur over large areas of (sub-)urban ecosystems in the form of skyglow. The most sensitive response variable to ALAN exposure is the nocturnal melatonin levels. Possible actions of ALAN on other physiological parameters can be either by direct perception of light or indirectly via reduced melatonin. This thesis contributes to an understanding of thresholds for several physiological effects caused by ALAN exposure of several weeks. Thresholds for ALAN intensities could provide the necessary descriptors for elaborating regulatory measures to reduce light pollution in the future.