Thesis (PhD (Electrical and Electronic Engineering))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: South Africa and Australia are now the two remaining countries bidding for the Square Kilometre Array (SKA), the biggest and most sensitive project ever undertaken in radio astronomy. The South African SKA is demonstrating its technology capabilities through the Karoo Array Telescope (KAT or MeerKAT). The development of KAT is taking place in stages to optimise design and minimise risks at each stage. An array of seven 12 m antennas will be complete by the end of 2009, called KAT-7. The following phase will see the construction of MeerKAT, which will lead to eighty arrayed dishes. Lightning and RFI studies for KAT-7 are the focus of this dissertation. Due to the extent and complexity of the South African demonstrator project, these studies have largely been conducted on a single structure. Parameters for the dish antenna and pedestal design changed throughout their development. To be effective, the doctoral research had to track these changes appropriately. A Method of Moments frequency domain computational electromagnetic code, FEKO, is used throughout the study. The consequences of direct and indirect lightning strikes are examined for the KAT-7 structure. Important FEKO model verification is achieved through measurement of physical scale models in an anechoic chamber. The microwave simulation code, CST, gives direct comparison of FEKO results by using a finite volume time domain method of calculation. Using frequency domain analysis on these models, the lightning down conductor design over the dish antenna bearings is optimised with cost-effectiveness as one driving parameter. RFI coupling levels for different designs are compared to each other to identify areas requiring RFI mitigation. Analysis of resonances enables evaluation of the mitigation at frequencies sensitive to radio astronomy. A Sommerfeld integral ground plane is used together with the computational model to investigate the use of the concrete foundation steel reinforcing as part of the lightning earthing electrode system. Different interconnections of the steel reinforcing elements are critically evaluated. The KAT-7 design incorporated clear lightning protection and RFI mitigation policies derived from recommendations contained within this dissertation. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Suid-Afrika en Australie is nou die oorblywende twee lande wat bie vir die Vierkante Kilometer Reeks (SKA), die grootste en mees sensitiewe projek nog ooit in radio astronomie onderneem. Die Suid Afrikaanse SKA demonstreer sy tegnologiese bekwaamheid met die Karoo Reeks Teleskoop (KAT of MeerKAT). Die ontwikkeling van KAT vind plaas in fases om die ontwerp te optimaliseer en risikos te minimaliseer met elke fase. ’n Reeks van sewe 12 m antennas, genaamd KAT-7, sal teen die einde van 2009 klaar wees. Die volgende fase behels die konstruksie van MeerKAT, wat sal lei tot ’n tagtig-skottel reeks. Die fokus van hierdie proefskrif hanteer weerlig en radiofrekwensie steurings (RFS) vir KAT-7. As gevolg van die omvang en kompleksiteit van die Suid-Afrikaanse demonstreerder projek, is die studies hoofsaaklik op een struktuur gedoen. Parameters vir die antenna-skottel en -voetstuk ontwerp het met hul ontwikkeling deurgaans verander. Om effektief te wees, moes die doktorale navorsing hierdie veranderinge toepaslik volg. ’n Metode-van-Momente frekwensiedomein rekenaar elektromagnetiese kode, FEKO, is deurgaans met die studie gebruik. Die gevolge van direkte en indirekte weerligslae vir die KAT-7 struktuur is ondersoek. Belangrike FEKO model bevestiging is bereik met metings van skaalmodelle in ’n anego¨ıse kamer. Die mikrogolf-simulasie kode, CST, gee ’n direkte vergelyking met die FEKO resultate deur ’n eindige-volume-tyd-domein metode van berekening te gebruik. Met behulp van frekwensiedomein analise van hierdie modelle, is die weerligafleierontwerp oor die antenna-skottel laers ge-optimaliseer, met koste-effektiwiteit as een van die drywingsparameters. RFS koppelingsvlakke vir onderskeie ontwerpe is teen mekaar opgeweeg om areas te identifiseer wat RFS tempering benodig. Analise van resonansies stel die evaluering van die tempering in staat teen frekwensies wat sensitief is vir radio astronomie. ’n Sommerfeld integrale grondvlak word saam met die rekenaarmodel gebruik om die insluiting van die beton se staalversterking as deel van die aardingselektrodestelsel te ondersoek. Verskillende bindmetodes van die onderlinge staalversterkingselemente word krities ge¨evalueer. Die KAT-7 ontwerp inkorporeer duidelike weerligbeveiligings- en RFS temperingstrategie ¨e, komende van aanbevelings in hierdie proefskrif omskryf

As linhas de distribuição de energia estão frequentemente expostas a sobretensões causadas por descargas atmosféricas diretas e indiretas. As formas de onda dessas sobretensões podem diferir bastante do impulso atmosférico normalizado utilizado em ensaios para verificação da adequação dos projetos das isolações dos equipamentos frente a sobretensões atmosféricas (1,2/ 50 µs). Diferentes modelos têm sido propostos para se estimar o desempenho das isolações frente a impulsos não normalizados, sendo o modelo do efeito disruptivo (disruptive effect model) um dos mais utilizados. Este trabalho visa avaliar o comportamento de isoladores de média tensão quando sujeitos a sobretensões atmosféricas bipolares oscilatórias. Simulações realizadas usando o \"Extended Rusck Model\"(ERM) e resultados de medições demonstram que a ocorrência de sobretensões bipolares oscilatórias em linhas de distribuição não é um fato raro, pois descargas atmosféricas podem, sob certas condições, induzir tensões com tais características. Modificações realizadas no circuito de um gerador de impulsos de alta tensão convencional permitiram a geração de tensões bipolares de três períodos distintos: 2,2 µs, 4,1 µs e 6,0 µs. Este trabalho investiga o comportamento de um típico isolador de porcelana tipo pino de 15 kV sujeito a um impulso bipolar, representativo de uma tensão induzida por um raio. Mostra-se que uma modificação no método proposto por Savadamuthu et al. para estimar a suportabilidade do isolamento de pequenos (alguns milímetros) sistemas de isolamento submetidos a tensões oscilantes bipolares leva a resultados promissores em termos de previsão da ocorrência de descargas no isolador de classe 15 kV. / Power lines are often exposed to surges caused by direct and indirect lightning. The waveforms of these overvoltages may differ significantly from the standard lightning impulse used in tests to verify the adequacy of equipment insulation designs against atmospheric overvoltages (1.2/50 µs). Different models have been proposed to estimate the performance of the insulation against non-normalized impulses, with the disruptive effect model being one of the most used. This work aims at evaluating the behavior of medium voltage insulators when subjected to bidirectionally oscillating voltages. Simulations run using the Extended Rusck Model (ERM) and measurement results show that the occurrence of bipolar oscillating overvoltages are not rare on power distribution lines, as lightning strokes can induce, under certain conditions, voltages with such characteristics. Modifications performed in the circuit of a conventional high voltage pulse generator allowed the generation of bipolar voltages of three distinct periods: 2.2 µs, 4.1 µs and 6.0 µs. This work investigates the behavior of a typical 15 kV pin-type porcelain insulator subjected to bipolar impulses representative of lightning-induced voltages. It is shown that a modification on the method proposed by Savadamuthu et al. to estimate the insulation strength of small (a few mm) insulation systems subjected to bipolar oscillating voltages leads to promising results in terms of predicting the occurrence of flashovers on the 15 kV insulator.

As descargas atmosféricas causam prejuízos às concessionárias de energia elétrica, aos consumidores e à sociedade como um todo. Diferentes métodos podem ser utilizados para melhorar a confiabilidade do sistema elétrico e a qualidade da energia fornecida aos consumidores. Entretanto, as sobretensões atmosféricas variam em função de diversos parâmetros, de modo que a eficácia de determinada alternativa de proteção depende não apenas da configuração da rede, mas também das características da região, especialmente da densidade de descargas atmosféricas e da resistividade do solo. Consequentemente a relação custo-benefício correspondente a cada alternativa também depende das características de cada região. É importante, portanto, dispor de um modelo para realizar essas avaliações levando em conta todos os fatores envolvidos no processo, de forma a auxiliar as empresas de energia na tomada de decisões sobre investimentos em proteção contra descargas atmosféricas. Entretanto, modelos de análise de viabilidade que permitam a obtenção de conclusões econômicas amplas para dar suporte à tomada de decisões não são normalmente utilizados em função da complexidade dos fenômenos associados às descargas atmosféricas e à dificuldade na construção de modelagens econômicas neste contexto. Para preencher esta lacuna, este trabalho propõe um modelo para análise do custo e benefício da implantação de sistemas de proteção contra descargas atmosféricas em redes de distribuição considerando os investimentos, a redução da indisponibilidade e os custos evitados para a distribuidora e a sociedade. A análise financeira é feita com base na taxa interna de retorno dos investimentos e na razão entre custos e benefícios, o que facilita a análise de sensibilidade e permite determinar as condições nas quais a alternativa será viável. O modelo considera a indisponibilidade de energia e a inconfiabilidade do sistema a partir dos indicadores de duração equivalente de interrupção por unidade consumidora (DEC) e da frequência equivalente de interrupção por unidade consumidora (FEC), respectivamente. Os custos evitados devido à redução da indisponibilidade são tratados como benefícios. É utilizado para analisar as condições nas quais a aplicação de um determinado método de proteção em uma determinada rede é técnica e economicamente viável. Faz-se também uma análise de sensibilidade, sendo discutidas as influências de vários parâmetros nas relações custo-benefício correspondentes às regiões estudadas. O que na realidade não limita o modelo à análise de investimentos para melhoria do desempenho de redes de distribuição frente a descargas atmosféricas, mostrou-se prático e de grande utilidade na tomada de decisões quanto à realização de determinado investimento considerando as características da região e a efetividade do método de proteção analisado. / Lightning causes damages and losses to power companies, consumers, and the society as a whole. Different methods can be used to improve the power quality and the reliability of the electrical system. However, lightning overvoltages depend upon several parameters, so that the effectiveness of a certain protection alternative depends not only on the network configuration but also on the characteristics of the region, especially the ground flash density and the soil resistivity. Consequently, the cost-benefit ratio corresponding to each alternative depends also on the characteristics of each region. It is important, therefore, that the model for conducting these assessments be capable of taking into account all the factors involved in the process so that it can assist power companies in making decisions on investments in lightning protection. However, models of feasibility analysis that enable to obtain broad economic conclusions to support decision-making are not normally used due to the complexity of the phenomena associated with lightning overvoltages and the difficulty in constructing economic models in this context. For this reason this work proposes a model for the analysis of the cost and benefit of the implantation of lightning protection systems in distribution networks considering the investments, the reduction of the unavailability, and the costs avoided for the distribution power company and the society. The financial analysis is based on the internal rate of return on investments and the cost-benefit ratio, which facilitates the sensitivity analysis and allows for the determination of the conditions under which the alternative will be feasible. The model considers the energy unavailability and the unreliability of the system from the indicators of equivalent duration of interruption per consumer unit (DEC) and the equivalent frequency of interruption per consumer unit (FEC), respectively. The costs avoided due to the reduction of unavailability are treated as benefits. The model is used to analyze the conditions under which the application of a given protection method in a given network is technically and economically feasible. A sensitivity analysis is also done and the influences of several parameters on the cost-benefit ratios corresponding to the regions studied are discussed. However the model, which actually is not limited to the analysis of investments to improve the lightning performance of power distribution networks, has proved to be practical and very useful in the decision-makingregarding the realization of a given investment taking into account the characteristics of the region and the effectiveness of the protection method analyzed.

Este trabalho apresenta uma análise dos surtos em redes aéreas secundárias de distribuição causados por descargas atmosféricas diretas no circuito primário. Alguns trabalhos publicados sobre o fenômeno são comentados, sendo também analisados vários outros estudos relativos à modelagem de componentes. No trabalho, os principais componentes da rede foram modelados e incluídos na representação de uma topologia típica (com as linhas primária e secundária). Assim, foram considerados: transformador de distribuição, isoladores, pára-raios, cargas (consumidores) e resistências de aterramento. Os modelos foram validados, quando possível, através de ensaios em laboratório. Algumas alternativas de proteção da rede secundária foram consideradas. Foi verificada a influência de alguns parâmetros relevantes tais como amplitude e tempo de frente da corrente da descarga, resistências de aterramento, modelos de cargas e posição da descarga. Os resultados foram obtidos por simulações computacionais realizadas através do programa ATP (Alternative Transients Program). São apresentadas formas de onda de sobretensões nos consumidores. Também são apresentados e discutidos valores de corrente e energia nos dispositivos de proteção, fornecendo informações sobre as alternativas de proteção. / This work presents an evaluation of surges in low-voltage overhead distribution lines caused by direct lightning strikes in medium voltage lines. Some publications concerning the phenomenon are commented and several other studies used during the process of modeling of the components are also analysed. The main components of the distribution system were modeled and included. So, a typical distribution network topology (with the primary and secondary lines) was represented including its components: distribution transformer, insulators, surge arresters, loads and ground resistances. The performance of the developed models, whenever possible, was verified by laboratory tests. Some possibilities of the secondary protection were included. Parameters having major effect on the results, such as the lightning current amplitude and front time, the values of grounding resistances, the models of the loads and the lightning strike position were taken into consideration in the study. The results were obtained by simulations performed using the ATP (Alternative Transients Program). Waveforms are presented in order to provide information on the characteristics of the overvoltages in the consumers along the line. Currents, as well as energy absorbed by the low-voltage surge arresters are aldo presented and discussed, providing useful information about the performance of some protection alternatives.

Este trabalho apresenta um estudo de caracterização das impedâncias de entrada, em função da frequência, de instalações residenciais de baixa tensão e diversos equipamentos eletro-eletrônicos comumente encontrados. As respostas em frequência medidas são ajustadas e modeladas por redes RLC simples, mas efetivas, que podem ser utilizadas em qualquer programa computacional para simulações de transitórios. A faixa de frequências, até 5 MHz, permite o uso desses modelos em estudos associados a transitórios atmosféricos ou causados por chaveamentos. É importante ressaltar a existência de muito poucos trabalhos nesse assunto, pois, usualmente, as instalações de baixa tensão, ou os equipamentos conectados, são representadas por simples elementos concentrados, resistores, indutores ou capacitores. Por outro lado, sabe-se que os níveis de sobretensões em um sistema, ou instalação, são fortemente dependentes das cargas conectadas e, quanto mais precisos os modelos, melhores e mais confiáveis simulações são obtidas. Este trabalho inclui simulações com o programa computacional ATP utilizando os modelos desenvolvidos para avaliação de surtos em uma rede de distribuição típica submetida a descargas atmosféricas diretas no circuito primário. Além disso, utilizando o programa Pspice, são realizadas simulações da resposta interna de uma instalação residencial, com diversos equipamentos conectados, e submetida a surtos atmosféricos em sua entrada. O trabalho concentra informações práticas e úteis sobre estudos de surtos em sistemas e instalações de baixa tensão / This work presents a study of impedance characteristics, over a wide range of frequencies, of residential low-voltage installations and electric-electronic appliances, commonly found in residential installations. The measured frequency responses are fitted and modeled by simple, but effective, RLC networks, that can be used in any software for transient simulations. The range of frequencies, up to 5 MHz, allows the use of these models considering lightning or switching studies. It is of importance to point the lack of publications focusing this topic, because usually the low-voltage installations, or connected equipment, are represented by simple lumped components inductances, resistances or capacitances. Otherwise, it is well known that the overvoltage level of a system, or installation, is strongly dependent on the connected loads and for more precise models, better and more reliable simulation results are obtained. This work includes ATP software simulations using the developed models for evaluation of surges in a typical distribution network subjected to direct lightning strikes at the primary circuit. Furthermore, simulations of internal response of a low-voltage installation with connected equipment and subjected to lightning surges in its entrance is performed using the Pspice software. The work summarizes practical and useful information about the low-voltage surge studies on low-voltage systems.

Dans ce mémoire, nous présentons une stratégie basée sur une approche hybridedans le domaine temporel, couplant une méthode de résolution des équations de Maxwelldans le domaine 3D (FDTD) avec une méthode de résolution des équations de ligne detransmission, afin de pouvoir simuler des problèmes électromagnétiques de grande échelle. Lemémoire donne les éléments d’hybridation pour deux cadres d’utilisation de cette approche :une approche multi-domaine et une approche multi-résolution ou d’échelle.L’approche multi-domaine est une extension de la méthode FDTD 3D à plusieurs sousdomainesreliés par des structures filaires sur lesquelles on résout une équation de lignes detransmission par un formalisme FDTD 1D. La difficulté est d’abord d’avoir une définitionimplicite du champ électromagnétique dans la théorie des lignes de transmission, et d’autrepart de prendre en compte les effets du sol sur les courants induits au niveau des lignes etsur les champs électromagnétiques.L’approche multi-résolution ou d’échelle est conçue pour étendre les capacités de la méthodeFDTD au traitement du routage de câbles complexes ayant une section plus petite quela taille de la cellule. Ce mémoire présente différentes techniques pour évaluer les paramètresde la ligne, basées sur la résolution d’un problème de Laplace 2D, ainsi qu’une méthode decouplage champs/câbles basée sur le courant de mode commun.L’ensemble de ce travail nous a permis de proposer une méthode numérique efficace pourcalculer les effets électromagnétiques induits par une source (type onde plane ou dipolaire)sur des sites de grande dimension, composés de plusieurs bâtiments reliés entre eux par unréseau de câbles. Dans ce cadre une application à la foudre a été réalisée. / In this thesis, we present a strategy based on a hybrid approach in the timedomain, by coupling 3D method (FDTD) with a multi-conductors transmission line (MTL)method, in order to simulate complex large scale electromagnetic problems. This reportgives the theoretical and numerical elements for coupling these approaches for two kindof problems, which are the multi domains approach and the multi scale approach. Themultiple domains approach is an extension of the classical FDTD method taking into accountseveral 3D subdomains, interconnected by a wire network, on which a 1D transmission lineformalism is used. The main issues are, on one hand to have an implicit expression ofthe electromagnetic field in the transmission line approach, and on the other hand to beable to take into account the ground effects on the induced currents, on the transmissionline parameters and on the electromagnetic field. The multi scale approach is developed toextend the capabilities of FDTD to deal with complex cables routing. We assume that thecross section of the cables are smallest than the cell size, and in these problems, the 1Dtransmission line problem is physically included in the 3D global computational domain.The work done in this thesis leaded to a new field to transmission line coupling based onthe common mode current, and an evaluation of the transmission. line parameters basedon a Laplace equation resolution in 2D. In this work, we have elaborated and proposedefficient numerical strategies for the computation of electromagnetic induced effects on largeand complex sites, composed of several interconnected distant buildings. An application tolightning problems have been done.

Este trabalho apresenta uma análise dos surtos em redes aéreas secundárias de distribuição causados por descargas atmosféricas diretas no circuito primário. Alguns trabalhos publicados sobre o fenômeno são comentados, sendo também analisados vários outros estudos relativos à modelagem de componentes. No trabalho, os principais componentes da rede foram modelados e incluídos na representação de uma topologia típica (com as linhas primária e secundária). Assim, foram considerados: transformador de distribuição, isoladores, pára-raios, cargas (consumidores) e resistências de aterramento. Os modelos foram validados, quando possível, através de ensaios em laboratório. Algumas alternativas de proteção da rede secundária foram consideradas. Foi verificada a influência de alguns parâmetros relevantes tais como amplitude e tempo de frente da corrente da descarga, resistências de aterramento, modelos de cargas e posição da descarga. Os resultados foram obtidos por simulações computacionais realizadas através do programa ATP (Alternative Transients Program). São apresentadas formas de onda de sobretensões nos consumidores. Também são apresentados e discutidos valores de corrente e energia nos dispositivos de proteção, fornecendo informações sobre as alternativas de proteção. / This work presents an evaluation of surges in low-voltage overhead distribution lines caused by direct lightning strikes in medium voltage lines. Some publications concerning the phenomenon are commented and several other studies used during the process of modeling of the components are also analysed. The main components of the distribution system were modeled and included. So, a typical distribution network topology (with the primary and secondary lines) was represented including its components: distribution transformer, insulators, surge arresters, loads and ground resistances. The performance of the developed models, whenever possible, was verified by laboratory tests. Some possibilities of the secondary protection were included. Parameters having major effect on the results, such as the lightning current amplitude and front time, the values of grounding resistances, the models of the loads and the lightning strike position were taken into consideration in the study. The results were obtained by simulations performed using the ATP (Alternative Transients Program). Waveforms are presented in order to provide information on the characteristics of the overvoltages in the consumers along the line. Currents, as well as energy absorbed by the low-voltage surge arresters are aldo presented and discussed, providing useful information about the performance of some protection alternatives.

Este trabalho apresenta um estudo de caracterização das impedâncias de entrada, em função da frequência, de instalações residenciais de baixa tensão e diversos equipamentos eletro-eletrônicos comumente encontrados. As respostas em frequência medidas são ajustadas e modeladas por redes RLC simples, mas efetivas, que podem ser utilizadas em qualquer programa computacional para simulações de transitórios. A faixa de frequências, até 5 MHz, permite o uso desses modelos em estudos associados a transitórios atmosféricos ou causados por chaveamentos. É importante ressaltar a existência de muito poucos trabalhos nesse assunto, pois, usualmente, as instalações de baixa tensão, ou os equipamentos conectados, são representadas por simples elementos concentrados, resistores, indutores ou capacitores. Por outro lado, sabe-se que os níveis de sobretensões em um sistema, ou instalação, são fortemente dependentes das cargas conectadas e, quanto mais precisos os modelos, melhores e mais confiáveis simulações são obtidas. Este trabalho inclui simulações com o programa computacional ATP utilizando os modelos desenvolvidos para avaliação de surtos em uma rede de distribuição típica submetida a descargas atmosféricas diretas no circuito primário. Além disso, utilizando o programa Pspice, são realizadas simulações da resposta interna de uma instalação residencial, com diversos equipamentos conectados, e submetida a surtos atmosféricos em sua entrada. O trabalho concentra informações práticas e úteis sobre estudos de surtos em sistemas e instalações de baixa tensão / This work presents a study of impedance characteristics, over a wide range of frequencies, of residential low-voltage installations and electric-electronic appliances, commonly found in residential installations. The measured frequency responses are fitted and modeled by simple, but effective, RLC networks, that can be used in any software for transient simulations. The range of frequencies, up to 5 MHz, allows the use of these models considering lightning or switching studies. It is of importance to point the lack of publications focusing this topic, because usually the low-voltage installations, or connected equipment, are represented by simple lumped components inductances, resistances or capacitances. Otherwise, it is well known that the overvoltage level of a system, or installation, is strongly dependent on the connected loads and for more precise models, better and more reliable simulation results are obtained. This work includes ATP software simulations using the developed models for evaluation of surges in a typical distribution network subjected to direct lightning strikes at the primary circuit. Furthermore, simulations of internal response of a low-voltage installation with connected equipment and subjected to lightning surges in its entrance is performed using the Pspice software. The work summarizes practical and useful information about the low-voltage surge studies on low-voltage systems.

Despite their important ecosystem benefits for terrestrial and marine flora and fauna and the human livelihood mangrove forests suffer a high loss rate mainly due to human activity. Aside from these impacts, natural forest disturbances exist more commonly in mangroves compared to other forests as a direct consequence of their exposed coastal location. Within this thesis I investigate the influence of natural disturbance regimes on the mangrove forest dynamics focusing in particular on the ecological role of disturbances, disturbance patterns, forest structure, succession behavior and long-term vulnerability evaluation. The study areas were set in the Indian River Lagoon in Florida (USA) and in Can Gio an UNESCO Biosphere Reserve (Vietnam). In addition, theoretical simulation studies were carried out to complement the field studies. Thereby, in our study at the Indian River Lagoon site I investigated the ecosystem response to hurricane events of an artificially impounded mangrove forest. In Can Gio, the suitability of lightning strike – caused gaps for setting a homogenous plantation into more natural-like state according to species composition and forest structure was analyzed. Finally, a theoretical simulation study was carried out to compare lightning strike and hurricane events regarding their homogenization and heterogenization effects on the spatio-temporal forest structure. The findings of the field study in the Indian River Lagoon indicate that hurricane events had a severe impact on forest areas in higher successional stages by creating open patches, whereas areas in lower successional stages remained largely undisturbed. Furthermore, the impoundment determines the species selection of the post-hurricane succession by favoring flooding-tolerant species. However, regeneration was found to be impaired by the artificially high inundation regime at some disturbed patches. The lightning-strike disturbances enhance the species composition in the monospecific plantation in Can Gio by providing a sufficient light regime for entering seeds to establish. In addition, lightning-strike gaps increased the plantation structure complexity. Regenerating lightning-strike gaps remained as “green islands” within windthrow sites in the plantation due to their low stature and provided seeds for surrounding disturbed areas thereby accelerating their recolonization. The results of the simulation analysis of a theoretical landscape showed that in the simulated highly complex natural mature forests all disturbance regimes entail homogenization on the spatial structure compared to an undisturbed scenario. The hurricane scenario showed an increased temporal variation of the forest dynamics whereas lightning-strike gaps were not able to contribute to additional heterogeneity in the simulated area, despite of having the same tree mortality probability during disturbances. The interaction of the large-scale impoundment in the Indian River Lagoon and medium-sized hurricane events is characterized by partially impeded post-hurricane regeneration. In contrast, small-scaled lightning strikes influenced the regeneration of medium-sized windthrow sites positively within the homogenous plantation. We therefore suggest management activities aimed at creating small clearances within the plantation in Can Gio to simulate additional small-scale disturbances in order to facilitate heterogenization of the plantation structure. Natural disturbances are found to be able to enhance the species diversity and the interactions of ecological processes. In particular, where sustainable management strategies focused on maintaining ecosystem services especially in restored sites or plantations act as a supportive part. Natural disturbances are an integral component of mangrove forests and fulfill specific ecological functions. However, our findings indicate that these disturbances, on top of altered environmental conditions associated with climate change and direct human impacts, might jeopardize the natural development in unnatural forest structures as on plantations or restored sites. This thesis gives an extensive overview about the effect of various disturbances in different mangrove forest systems, including semi-natural forests and strongly modified plantations, on species composition and forest structure. Field studies and simulation analyses contribute in equal parts to the results of the thesis.

Zoomable user interfaces (ZUIs) have been studied for a long time and many applications are built upon them. Most applications, however, only use two dimensions to express the content. This report presents a solution using all three dimensions where the base features are built as a framework with uniform grids and scene graphs as primary data structures. The purpose of these data structures is to improve performance while maintaining flexibility when creating and handling three-dimensional objects. A 3D-ZUI is able to represent the view of the world and its objects in a more lifelike manner. It is possible to interact with the objects much in the same way as in real world. By developing a prototype framework as well as some example applications, the usefulness of 3D-ZUIs is illustrated. Since the framework relies on abstraction and object-oriented principles it is easy to maintain and extend it as needed. The currently implemented data structures are well motivated for a large scale 3D-ZUI in terms of accelerated collision detection and picking and they also provide a flexible base when developing applications. It is possible to further improve performance of the framework, for example by supporting different types of culling and levels of detail