Les nucléosides diphosphate kinases (NDPK) sont essentielles pour la génération des nucléosides triphosphates (NTPs) en utilisant l’ATP et des NDPs. L’isoforme mitochondriale de NDPK (NDPK-D), située dans l’espace intermembranaire des mitochondries, possède deux modes de fonctionnement. Dans le premier mode (« phosphotransfert »), la protéine a une activité de kinase comme les autres enzymes NDPK. Dans ce mode de fonctionnement, NDPK-D produit du GTP pour la protéine optique atrophy 1 (OPA1), une GTPase impliquée dans la fusion des mitochondries, et de l’ADP pour le translocateur à adénine (ANT) et l’ATPase mitochondriale pour la régénération d’ATP. Le second mode de fonctionnement est appelé « transfert de lipide » et est lié à la capacité de la protéine à se lier aux phospholipides anioniques, particulièrement la cardiolipine (CL). Dans ce mode NDPK-D peut réticuler les deux membranes mitochondriales et transférer CL de la membrane interne vers la membrane externe des mitochondries, pouvant servir de signal pour la mitophagie et l’apoptose. Ce travail a pour objectif d’étudier plus en détails ces différentes fonctions de NDPK-D. En utilisant des cellules HeLa exprimant de façon stable la protéine sauvage, kinase inactive (mutation H151N) ou incapable de se lier aux lipides (mutation R90D) et des cellules épithéliales de poumons de souris, nous montrons (i) une grande proximité entre NDPK-D et OPA1 qui conduit au channeling de GTP par NDPK-D pour OPA1, (ii) le rôle essentiel de NDPK-D pour l’externalisation de CL vers la surface des mitochondries pendant la mitophagie, servant de signal de reconnaissance pour le complexe LC3-II-autophagosomes afin d’éliminer les mitochondries endommagées, (iii) la possible inhibition de l’externalisation de CL par la présence de complexes NDPK-D/OPA1, et (iv) un phénotype pro-métastatique des cellules HeLa exprimant la NDPK-D mutée (H151N ou R90D), caractérisé par un fort potentiel invasif et migratoire, un profil protéique altéré, et des modifications au niveau structural et fonctionnel du réseau mitochondrial. Finalement, une première stratégie d’expression et de purification de la protéine OPA1 entière a été établie pour de futures études in vitro des complexes NDPK-D/OPA1. / The nucleoside diphosphate kinases (NDPK) are essential for generation of nucleoside triphosphates (NTPs) using ATP and NDPs. The mitochondrial NDPK isoform (NDPK-D) located in the mitochondrial intermembrane space is found to have two modes of function. First, the phosphotransfer mode in which the protein has a kinase activity like other NDPK enzymes. In this mode, NDPK-D produces GTP for the optic atrophy 1 protein (OPA1), a GTPase involved in mitochondrial fusion, and ADP for the adenylate translocator (ANT) and the mitochondrial ATPase for ATP regeneration. The second mode of function is called lipid transfer and is related to the capacity of NDPK-D to bind anionic phospholipids, especially cardiolipin (CL). In this mode, the protein can cross-link the two mitochondrial membranes and transfer CL from the inner to the outer mitochondrial membrane, which can serve as a signal for mitophagy and apoptosis. This work aims to study these NDPK-D functions in more detail. With the use of HeLa cells stably expressing the wild-type, kinase inactive (H151N mutation) or lipid binding deficient (R90D mutation) NDPK-D and mouse lung epithelial cells, we show (i) the close proximity between NDPK-D and OPA1 that leads to GTP channeling from NDPK-D to OPA1, (ii) the essential role of NDPK-D for CL externalization to the mitochondrial surface during mitophagy, serving as a recognition signal for LC3-II-autophagosomes to eliminate damaged mitochondria, (iii) the possible inhibition of CL externalization due to the presence of NDPK-D/OPA1 complexes, and (iv) a pro-metastatic phenotype of HeLa cells expressing either of the NDPK-D mutants (H151N or R90D), characterized by high invasive and migratory potential, altered proteomic profile and changed mitochondrial network structure and function. Finally, a first bacterial expression and purification strategy for full-length OPA1 has been established for future in vitro studies of NDPK-D/OPA1 complexes.

A área das Ciências Farmacêuticas busca constantemente por tratamentos mais eficientes, direcionados para alvos específicos, com diminuição da dose necessária e com a minimização dos efeitos adversos. Neste contexto, a área de Nanotecnologia Farmacêutica apresenta grande potencial de aplicabilidade, com resultados bastante promissores para o tratamento de diversas doenças. Os sistemas nanoestruturados têm sido avaliados para a incorporação de fármacos já utilizados em tratamentos administrados formas farmacêuticas convencionais que apresentam problemas farmacocinéticos ou farmacodinâmicos quando administrados. E, também, para a incorporação de novas moléculas com potencial para o tratamento de determinada doença. Neste trabalho de tese, nanocápsulas de núcleo lipídico versáteis contendo metotrexato na forma ácida e éster, bromelina, etanercept e infliximab foram desenvolvidas buscando contornar as limitações e aumentar a eficácia terapêutica desses fármacos. Inicialmente, as propriedades anti-inflamatórias de nanocápsulas de núcleo lipídico revestidas por micelas de polissorbato 80 contendo metotrexato encapsulado foram avaliadas em experimentos in vitro e in vivo, em células mononucleares obtidas a partir do líquido sinovial de pacientes com artrite reumatoide e em ratos Lewis com artrite induzida por adjuvante completo de Freund, respectivamente. As nanocápsulas de núcleo lipídico demonstraram serem altamente eficazes no controle da inflamação, sendo que os efeitos anti-inflamatórios in vivo foram alcançados em doses 75% menores que o metotrexato em solução. Na sequência, o tratamento in vitro da linhagem de células de carcinoma de mama humano, MCF-7, com nanocápsulas de núcleo lipídico multiparede funcionalizadas com bromelina demonstrou uma redução de 160 vezes na concentração necessária para obter o mesmo efeito quando comparada a uma solução de bromelina. A influência das pseudofases aniônicas e catiônicas no mecanismo de distribuição da indometacina, tacrolimus, aciclovir, metotrexato e éster etílico de metotrexato, foram avaliadas aplicando um algoritmo desenvolvido para nanocápsulas de núcleo lipídico. Verificou-se que somente a indometacina sofreu influência da presença de cargas, aumentando a afinidade pela fase dispersa das formulações. Formulações de nanocápsulas de núcleo lipídico multiparede contendo metotrexato na forma ácida e éster encapsulados e/ou funcionalizando a superfície das nanocápsulas foram desenvolvidas e testadas in vitro em linhagens de células tumorais (MCF-7) e em linhagens de células sadias (HaCaT). Essas formulações demonstraram atividade antiproliferativa maior para as MCF-7 (com redução em mais de 50% na viabilidade celular) em comparação com as soluções de metotrexato e éster etílico de metotrexato e esta atividade foi maior para as formulações em que as moléculas foram funcionalizadas na superfície das nanopartículas. A captação das nanopartículas pelas células também foi maior para as formulações funcionalizadas com metotrexato ou éster etílico de metotrexato em comparação com a formulação em que o éster de metotrexato está encapsulado. As três formulações contendo metotrexato na forma ácida ou éster não demonstraram ação antiproliferativa em linhagens de células sadias (HaCaT). Devido à baixa expressão de receptores de folato nessas células, não houve aumento da captação celular em comparação à formulação sem fármaco. Por último, foram desenvolvidas satisfatoriamente formulações de nanocápsulas de núcleo lipídico multiparede funcionalizadas com os anticorpos monoclonais infliximab e etanercept, e contendo éster etílico de metotrexato encapsulado, demonstrando que são adequadas para futuros estudos visando o tratamento da artrite reumatoide. Esse conjunto de resultados demonstra que as nanocápsulas de núcleo lipídico com funcionalização de superfície versátil, sejam revestidas com polissorbato 80 ou multiparede funcionalizadas são um sistema bastante promissor para a administração de fármacos de modo a aumentar sua especificidade e eficácia. / The Pharmaceutical Sciences field is constantly searching for more effective treatments, aiming specific targets, with dose reduction and minimization of side effects. In this context, the Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology field presents great applicability potential, with highly promising results for the treatment of several diseases. Nanostructured systems have been evaluated for the encapsulation of drugs approved for use in conventional pharmaceutical dosage forms that, however, exhibit pharmacokinetic or pharmacodynamics problems when administered, and for the encapsulation of novel molecules with potential to treat a determined disease. In the present thesis, versatile lipid-core nanocapsules containing methotrexate in the acid and ester forms, bromelain, etanercept and infliximab were developed, seeking to circumvent the limitations and increase the therapeutic efficacy of these drugs. Initially, the anti-inflammatory properties of methotrexate-loaded lipid-core nanocapsules coated with polysorbate 80 micelles were evaluated in in vitro and in vivo experiments, using mononuclear cells obtained from the synovial fluid of rheumatoid arthritis patients and Lewis rats with Freund complete adjuvant-induced arthritis. Lipid-core nanocapsules demonstrated to be highly effective in the control of inflammation, and the in vivo anti-inflammatory effects were reached in a dose 75% lower than the methotrexate in solution. In the sequence, the in vitro treatment of a human breast cancer cell line, MCF-7, with bromelina-functionalized multiple-wall lipid-core nanocapsules demonstrated a 160-fold reduction of the concentration required to obtain the same effect when compared with a bromelain solution. The influence of the anionic and cationic pseudo-phases in the distribution mechanism of indomethacin, tacrolimus, acyclovir, methotrexate and methotrexate ethyl ester was evaluated through an algorithm developed for lipid-core nanocapsules. It was verified that only indomethacin underwent influence in the presence of charge, increasing the affinity by the disperse phase of the formulations. Multiple-wall lipid-core nanocapsules formulations containing methotrexate in the acid and ester forms encapsulated and/or functionalizing the surface of the nanoparticles were developed and tested in vitro in tumour MCF-7 cells and in a healthy cell line (HaCaT). These formulations demonstrated higher anti-proliferative activity for the MCF-7 cells (reduction of over 50 % in cellular viability) in comparison with the methotrexate and methotrexate ethyl ester solutions and this activity was higher for the formulations in which the molecules were functionalized in the surface of the nanoparticles. A higher cellular uptake was observed for the formulations functionalized with methotrexate or methotrexate ethyl ester in comparison with the formulations in which the methotrexate ester is encapsulated. The three formulations containing methotrexate in the acid or ester form did not demonstrate anti-proliferative activity in non-tumour cell lines (HaCaT). Since these cells have a small expression of folate receptors, the uptake was not increased in comparison with the formulation without drug. Lastly, formulations of methotrexate ethyl ester-loaded multiwall lipid core nanocapsules functionalized with monoclonal antibodies infliximab and etanercept were successfully developed demonstrating suitability for future studies aiming the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. These groups of results demonstrate that versatile lipid core nanocapsules, either coated with polysorbate 80 or multiwalled functionalized are a very promising system for the administration of drugs aiming their specificity and efficacy.

A área das Ciências Farmacêuticas busca constantemente por tratamentos mais eficientes, direcionados para alvos específicos, com diminuição da dose necessária e com a minimização dos efeitos adversos. Neste contexto, a área de Nanotecnologia Farmacêutica apresenta grande potencial de aplicabilidade, com resultados bastante promissores para o tratamento de diversas doenças. Os sistemas nanoestruturados têm sido avaliados para a incorporação de fármacos já utilizados em tratamentos administrados formas farmacêuticas convencionais que apresentam problemas farmacocinéticos ou farmacodinâmicos quando administrados. E, também, para a incorporação de novas moléculas com potencial para o tratamento de determinada doença. Neste trabalho de tese, nanocápsulas de núcleo lipídico versáteis contendo metotrexato na forma ácida e éster, bromelina, etanercept e infliximab foram desenvolvidas buscando contornar as limitações e aumentar a eficácia terapêutica desses fármacos. Inicialmente, as propriedades anti-inflamatórias de nanocápsulas de núcleo lipídico revestidas por micelas de polissorbato 80 contendo metotrexato encapsulado foram avaliadas em experimentos in vitro e in vivo, em células mononucleares obtidas a partir do líquido sinovial de pacientes com artrite reumatoide e em ratos Lewis com artrite induzida por adjuvante completo de Freund, respectivamente. As nanocápsulas de núcleo lipídico demonstraram serem altamente eficazes no controle da inflamação, sendo que os efeitos anti-inflamatórios in vivo foram alcançados em doses 75% menores que o metotrexato em solução. Na sequência, o tratamento in vitro da linhagem de células de carcinoma de mama humano, MCF-7, com nanocápsulas de núcleo lipídico multiparede funcionalizadas com bromelina demonstrou uma redução de 160 vezes na concentração necessária para obter o mesmo efeito quando comparada a uma solução de bromelina. A influência das pseudofases aniônicas e catiônicas no mecanismo de distribuição da indometacina, tacrolimus, aciclovir, metotrexato e éster etílico de metotrexato, foram avaliadas aplicando um algoritmo desenvolvido para nanocápsulas de núcleo lipídico. Verificou-se que somente a indometacina sofreu influência da presença de cargas, aumentando a afinidade pela fase dispersa das formulações. Formulações de nanocápsulas de núcleo lipídico multiparede contendo metotrexato na forma ácida e éster encapsulados e/ou funcionalizando a superfície das nanocápsulas foram desenvolvidas e testadas in vitro em linhagens de células tumorais (MCF-7) e em linhagens de células sadias (HaCaT). Essas formulações demonstraram atividade antiproliferativa maior para as MCF-7 (com redução em mais de 50% na viabilidade celular) em comparação com as soluções de metotrexato e éster etílico de metotrexato e esta atividade foi maior para as formulações em que as moléculas foram funcionalizadas na superfície das nanopartículas. A captação das nanopartículas pelas células também foi maior para as formulações funcionalizadas com metotrexato ou éster etílico de metotrexato em comparação com a formulação em que o éster de metotrexato está encapsulado. As três formulações contendo metotrexato na forma ácida ou éster não demonstraram ação antiproliferativa em linhagens de células sadias (HaCaT). Devido à baixa expressão de receptores de folato nessas células, não houve aumento da captação celular em comparação à formulação sem fármaco. Por último, foram desenvolvidas satisfatoriamente formulações de nanocápsulas de núcleo lipídico multiparede funcionalizadas com os anticorpos monoclonais infliximab e etanercept, e contendo éster etílico de metotrexato encapsulado, demonstrando que são adequadas para futuros estudos visando o tratamento da artrite reumatoide. Esse conjunto de resultados demonstra que as nanocápsulas de núcleo lipídico com funcionalização de superfície versátil, sejam revestidas com polissorbato 80 ou multiparede funcionalizadas são um sistema bastante promissor para a administração de fármacos de modo a aumentar sua especificidade e eficácia. / The Pharmaceutical Sciences field is constantly searching for more effective treatments, aiming specific targets, with dose reduction and minimization of side effects. In this context, the Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology field presents great applicability potential, with highly promising results for the treatment of several diseases. Nanostructured systems have been evaluated for the encapsulation of drugs approved for use in conventional pharmaceutical dosage forms that, however, exhibit pharmacokinetic or pharmacodynamics problems when administered, and for the encapsulation of novel molecules with potential to treat a determined disease. In the present thesis, versatile lipid-core nanocapsules containing methotrexate in the acid and ester forms, bromelain, etanercept and infliximab were developed, seeking to circumvent the limitations and increase the therapeutic efficacy of these drugs. Initially, the anti-inflammatory properties of methotrexate-loaded lipid-core nanocapsules coated with polysorbate 80 micelles were evaluated in in vitro and in vivo experiments, using mononuclear cells obtained from the synovial fluid of rheumatoid arthritis patients and Lewis rats with Freund complete adjuvant-induced arthritis. Lipid-core nanocapsules demonstrated to be highly effective in the control of inflammation, and the in vivo anti-inflammatory effects were reached in a dose 75% lower than the methotrexate in solution. In the sequence, the in vitro treatment of a human breast cancer cell line, MCF-7, with bromelina-functionalized multiple-wall lipid-core nanocapsules demonstrated a 160-fold reduction of the concentration required to obtain the same effect when compared with a bromelain solution. The influence of the anionic and cationic pseudo-phases in the distribution mechanism of indomethacin, tacrolimus, acyclovir, methotrexate and methotrexate ethyl ester was evaluated through an algorithm developed for lipid-core nanocapsules. It was verified that only indomethacin underwent influence in the presence of charge, increasing the affinity by the disperse phase of the formulations. Multiple-wall lipid-core nanocapsules formulations containing methotrexate in the acid and ester forms encapsulated and/or functionalizing the surface of the nanoparticles were developed and tested in vitro in tumour MCF-7 cells and in a healthy cell line (HaCaT). These formulations demonstrated higher anti-proliferative activity for the MCF-7 cells (reduction of over 50 % in cellular viability) in comparison with the methotrexate and methotrexate ethyl ester solutions and this activity was higher for the formulations in which the molecules were functionalized in the surface of the nanoparticles. A higher cellular uptake was observed for the formulations functionalized with methotrexate or methotrexate ethyl ester in comparison with the formulations in which the methotrexate ester is encapsulated. The three formulations containing methotrexate in the acid or ester form did not demonstrate anti-proliferative activity in non-tumour cell lines (HaCaT). Since these cells have a small expression of folate receptors, the uptake was not increased in comparison with the formulation without drug. Lastly, formulations of methotrexate ethyl ester-loaded multiwall lipid core nanocapsules functionalized with monoclonal antibodies infliximab and etanercept were successfully developed demonstrating suitability for future studies aiming the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. These groups of results demonstrate that versatile lipid core nanocapsules, either coated with polysorbate 80 or multiwalled functionalized are a very promising system for the administration of drugs aiming their specificity and efficacy.

Os mastócitos são células multifuncionais do sistema imunológico que participam em diversos processos biológicos. As funções dos mastócitos estão diretamente relacionados com a sua ativação e, subsequente, liberação de mediadores químicos. Os eventos iniciais da ativação dos mastócitos e da transdução de sinais ocorrem em microdomínios lipídicos (lipid rafts) da membrana plasmática. Os gangliosídeos derivados do GD1b são constituintes dos lipid rafts de mastócitos de roedores. O intercruzamento destes gangliosídeos pelo mAb AA4, resulta na formação de agregados (caps) na superfície celular e promove uma ativação parcial dos mastócitos, sem que ocorra a desgranulação. A ativação é semelhante a observada quando os FcRIs são intercruzados por antígenos multivalentes ligados a IgEs, mas neste caso ocorre a desgranulação. O presente estudo tem como objetivo caracterizar o papel dos gangliosídeos derivados do GD1b na liberação de mediadores de mastócitos da linhagem RBL-2H3. O intercruzamento dos gangliosídeos derivados do GD1b resulta na ativação dos fatores de transcrição NFAT e NFB e esta ativação é mediada pela proteína quinase Syk. A ativação destes fatores de transcrição resulta na liberação de mediadores neo-sintetizados, tais como: TNF-, interleucina (IL)-4. Por outro lado, o intercruzamento dos gangliosídeos derivados de GD1b não induz a liberação dos mediadores neoformados como o leucotrieno B4 (LTB4) e o leucotrieno C4 (LTC4). A agregação dos gangliosídeos derivados do GD1b resulta na desorganização dos lipid rafts e na redistribuição de seus componentes, como demostrado pela análise proteômica. Estes dados mostraram proteínas capazes de desencadear uma ativação parcial dos mastócitos e proteínas reguladoras negativas da desgranulação estão up reguladas, enquanto que proteínas críticas para a transdução do sinal estão down reguladas. Os resultados obtidos neste trabalho demonstram que os gangliosídeos derivados do GD1b desempenham papel crucial na integridade dos lipid rafts modulando a ativação e liberação de mediadores de mastócitos. / Mast cells are immunoregulatory cells that participate in diverse biological events. The action of mast cells is directly related to their activation and subsequent mediator release. Early signal transduction events occur in lipid rafts in the plasma membrane. GD1b-derived gangliosides are known constituents of lipid rafts in rodent mast cells. The cross-linking of these gangliosides by mAb AA4 results in a partial activation of mast cells similar to that observed when FcRIs are cross-linked, but does not result in the mast cell degranulation. With time, the gangliosides bound to mAb AA4 cap on the cell surface. The present study aims to characterize the role of the rodent mast cell specific gangliosides derived from GD1b in mediator release from RBL-2H3 mast cells. Cross-linking the GD1b-derived gangliosides activated the transcription factors NFAT and NFB and this activation was mediated by Syk. The activation of theses transcription factors by cross-linked GD1b-derived gangliosides results in the release of the neo-synthesized mediators TNF- and interleukin (IL)-4. However, cross-linking GD1b-derived gangliosides did not stimulate release of the newly formed mediators leukotriene B4 (LTB4) and leukotriene C4 (LTC4). Capping of GD1b-derived gangliosides disorganized lipid rafts and resulted in a redistribution of lipid raft components. Proteomic analysis showed that proteins that trigger mast cell activation and negative regulatory proteins of degranulation are up regulated, whereas proteins critical for signal transduction are down regulated in mast cells where the gangliosides are capped. The results of this work demonstrate that the mast cell-specific GD1b-derived gangliosides are crucial in maintaining the functional integrity of the lipid rafts and modulate cell activation and subsequent mediator release from mast cells.

Para se verificar o efeito de drogas hipolipemizantes sobre a qualidade do ovo, desempenho das aves, níveis de Iípides plasmáticos e colesterol na gema do ovo, foram realizados dois experimentos utilizando-se galinhas poedeiras Shaver. No experimento 1, 240 aves com 30 semanas de idade, foram alimentadas durante 12 semanas com dieta comercial (CON1) acrescida de Probucol a 0,1% (PROB), Gemfibrozil a 0,025% (GEMF) e Lovastatina em três concentrações: 0,0005% (LOV1), 0,001% (LOV2) e 0,0015% (LOV3), totalizando seis tratamentos. No experimento 2, 128 aves com 26 semanas de idade, receberam como alimentação, durante seis semanas, dieta formulada sem ingredientes de origem animal (CON2), acrescida de Colestiramina a 0,2% (COL 1) e 0,3% (COL2) e Lovastatina a 0,005% (LOV4), perfazendo um total de quatro tratamentos. Em ambos os experimentos, a adição das drogas não prejudicou a qualidade da casca e do albúmen dos ovos e, de um modo geral, não determinou efeitos indesejáveis sobre o desempenho produtivo das aves, com exceção da redução observada no peso médio dos ovos no experimento 2. No experimento 1, em relação aos lípides plasmáticos, a adição de drogas à ração determinou reduções de significado estatístico (p<0,05), nos triglicérides, apenas no LOV2 (38,5%), e no colesterol total, nos grupos LOV2 (36,0%), LOV3 (36,8%), PROB (29,6%) e GEMF (30,4%). Não foram consignadas alterações significativas nos níveis de HDL-colesterol em relação ao CON 1, observando-se, com exceção do GEMF, tendência a elevação de seus valores com o uso das diferentes drogas. Verificou-se redução significativa (p<0,05) do colesterol na gema (mg/g) nos grupos LOV1 (7,4%) e LOV3 (12,1%). No experimento 2, os lípides plasmáticos não sofreram alterações de significado estatístico em relação ao CON2, sendo que os triglicérides e o colesterol total mostraram tendência a diminuição no LOV4. A concentração de colesterol na gema (mg/g) permaneceu inalterada, em cotejo com o CON2, mediante a adição das drogas utilizadas no experimento 2. Os efeitos da Lovastatina sobre as concentrações de Iípides sanguíneos e de colesterol do ovo foram menos evidentes no experimento 2, onde as aves apresentavam níveis de Iípides plasmáticos mais reduzidos. Os coeficientes de correlação e as equações de regressão calculados mostraram que o peso da gema aumenta conforme o peso do ovo se eleva (p<0,05), e que um aumento do peso da gema corresponde a um incremento de seu teor de colesterol, indicando que as variações dos níveis de colesterol por gema podem ser, em parte, justificadas pelas diferenças entre os pesos dos ovos. / Two experiments were carried out to evaluate the effect of lipid¬lowering agents upon egg quality, reproductive performance, plasma lipids and egg yolk cholesterol levels of Shaver laying hens. In the first trial, two hundred and forty 30-week-old hens were fed basal diet (commercial ration - CON1) supplemented with 0.1 % Probucol (PROB), 0.025% Gemfibrozil (GEMF), or Lovastatin at 0.0005% (LOV1), 0.001 % (LOV2) and 0.015% (LOV3) for a 12-week experimental period. In experiment 2, one hundred and twenty-eight 26-week-old hens were fed basal diet without animal products (CON2) containing either 0.2% Cholestyramine (CaL 1), 0.3% Cholestyramine (COL2) or 0.005% Lovastatin (LOV4) for a period of six weeks. At the termination of both experiments, it was observed that the supplement of the drugs did not impair albumen and shell quality. In addition, hen performance was not adversely affected, with the exception of the significant reduction (p<0.05) in egg weights observed in experiment 2. In experiment 1, with regard to the plasma lipids, the depression in triglyceride concentrations approached statistical significance (p<0.05) only in LOV2 (38.5%), and total cholesterol was significantly depressed (p<0.05) in LOV2 (36.0%), LOV3 (36.8%), PROB (29.6%) and GEMF (30.4%) groups. HOL-cholesterol levels were not significantly altered by drug treatments; but with the exception of GEMF, there was a trend towards the elevation by the use of other drugs. Egg cholesterol content, expressed per gram of yolk was significantly lowered (p<0.05) in LOV1 (7.4%) and LOV3 (12.1 %). In experiment 2, no significant changes were observed on plasma lipids due to the addition of the drugs, but cholesterol and triglyceride levels tend to reduction in LOV4 group. Egg yolk cholesterol remained unchanged in experiment 2 with the supplement of the drugs. The effect of Lovastatin on plasma lipid and egg yolk cholesterol concentration was less remarkable in experiment 2, when hens presented lower plasma lipid levels. When correlation coefficients and regression equations were calculated, it was found that yolk weight increased linearly (p<0.05) as egg weight raised, and the higher the yolk weight, the higher the yolk cholesterol content, indicating that yolk cholesterol content changes may be partially explained by differences among egg weights.

A organização da membrana biológica em microdomínios tem um papel chave em vários processos celulares semelhante a receptores protéicos e a transdução de sinal. A existência de microdomínios, também denominados de rafts tem sido explicada pela separação das membranas lipídicas em duas fases: liquida cristalina (L) e fase liquida ordenada (Lo) rica em colesterol e esfingolipídeos. Assim, o enfoque deste projeto foi correlacionar mecanismos de controle da atividade da fosfatase alcalina (TNAP) com a organização intermolecular e o estado de fase de alguns lipídios que compõem as vesículas da matrix. Foi estudada a modulação da atividade da enzima e sua inserção à sistemas de lipossomos constituídos com diferentes composições lipídicas (Dipalmitoilfosfatidilcolina, Colesterol, Esfingomielina e Gangliosídeo) como um mecanismo de regulação e transdução entre enzimas que não compartilham intermediários metabólicos comuns. Isto é, verificar como mudanças de organização molecular, induzida por colesterol e/ou outros lipídios, podem modular a atividade de enzimas regulando a produção de mensageiros lipídicos secundários e/ou processos de fusão e recombinação topológica da bicamada lipídica, modulando concomitantemente a atividade da fosfatase alcalina. Com tal propósito, a TNAP foi reconstituída em lipossomos constituídos de DPPC e lipossomos mistos formando sistemas binários DPPC:Chol, DPPC:SM e DPPC:GM1 com razões molares de (9:1); sistemas terciários DPPC:Chol:SM, DPPC:Chol:GM1 e DPPC:SM:GM1 com razões molares de (8:1:1) e por fim sistemas quaternários constituídos de DPPC:Chol:SM:GM1 (7:1:1:1). Estes sistemas foram propostos com o intuito de mimetizarmos os lipid rafts existentes nas membranas biológicas, porém utilizando lipídios que já foram identificados e quantificados nas vesículas da matrix. Foram avaliados os efeitos da composição lipídica dos lipossomos na inserção da enzima aos sistemas vesiculares. Além disso, foram realizados estudos biofísicos de calorimetria analisando como os parâmetros termodinâmicos são afetados com as diferentes composições lipídicas e pela presença da enzima ancorada aos sistemas. A reconstituição da enzima a lipossomos constituídos de DPPC proporcionou uma incorporação em torno de 80% da atividade enzimática. Estudos termodinâmicos dos proteolipossomos formados evidenciaram uma queda significativa nos valores de variação de entalpia em relação aos sistemas de lipossomos (de 7,63 a 1,88 kcal.mol-1). Lipossomos binários constituídos de DPPC:Chol em concentrações crescentes (9:1, 9:2, 9:3, 7:3, 9:4 e 9:5 razão molar) foram estudados tanto pelos parâmetros biofísicos como pela habilidade de inserção da enzima a tais sistemas. Foi observado um significativo decréscimo nos valores de variação entalpia com o aumento da proporção de colesterol no lipossomo. Além disso, a presença do colesterol proporcionou uma redução na inserção da atividade catalítica em até 42%, quando utilizada a composição lipídica de 9:5 DPPC:Chol. Dos sistemas binários formados com razões molares 9:1, o que apresentou maior porcentagem de reconstituição da TNAP foi o sistemas DPPC:Chol, apresentando em torno de 62% de incorporação da enzima. Os sistemas terciários apresentaram ao redor de 30% de incorporação da atividade catalítica e o sistema quaternário em torno de 25%. Além dos ensaios de atividade enzimática, a incorporação da enzima aos sistemas vesiculares também pôde ser comprovada pelas mudanças nos parâmetros termodinâmicas detectados por DSC. Nos estudos de calorimetria de todos os sistemas de proteolipossomos formados, foram observadas significativas diminuições nos valores de variação de entalpia quando comparados aos sistemas de lipossomos correspondentes. Deste modo, os resultados aqui apresentados fornecem novas informações que poderão contribuir tanto para a compreensão do comportamento da atividade da fosfatase alcalina na presença de diferentes composições lipídicas dos microdomínios existente membrana, quanto para o entendimento dos processos de regulação da enzima durante o processo de biomineralização. / The organization of the biological membrane in microdomains has a key roll in many cellular processes similar to proteic receptors and signal transduction. The existence of microdomains, also called rafts, has been explained by the lipid membrane separation in two phases: crystalline phase (L) and ordinate liquid phase (Lo), rich in cholesterol and sphingolipids. The focus of this Project was to correlate activity control mechanisms of the alkaline phosphatase (TNAP) with the intermolecular organization and the phase stat of some lipids that comprise the matrix vesicles. The enzyme activity modulation and its insertion into liposomes systems, constituted by different lipid compositions (DPPC, Chol, SM e GM1) as a regulation and transduction mechanism between enzymes that do not share common intermediary metabolites, was studied. That is, to verify how molecular organization changes, induced by cholesterol and/or other lipids, can modulate the enzyme activity regulating the production of secondary lipid messengers and/or fusion processes and topological recombination of the lipidic bilayer, concomitantly modeling the alkaline phosphatase activity. TNAP was then reconstituted in liposomes constituted by DPPC and mixed liposomes forming binary systems DPPC:Chol , DPPC:SM , DPPC: Chol:GM1 with (9:1) molar rates; tertiary systems DPPC:Chol:SM, DPPC:Chol:GM1 and DPPC:SM:GM1 with (8:1:1) molar rates and finally quaternary system constituted by DPPC:Chol:SM:GM1 (7:1:1:1). These systems were proposed aiming the mimetization of lipid rafts existent in biological membranes, but using lipids that had already been identified and quantified in the matrix vesicles. The effects of liposome lipid composition in the enzyme insertion to the vesicular systems were assayed. Besides that, calorimetry biophysical studies were done analyzing how the thermodynamic parameters are affected by the different lipid compositions e by the presence of the systems anchored enzyme. The enzyme reconstruction to the DPPC constituted liposomes has provided an incorporation of around 80% of the enzyme activity. Thermodynamic studies of the proteoliposomes formed have shown a significant decrease in the H values in relation to the liposomes systems (from 7.63 to 1.88 kcal.mol-1). Binary liposomes constituted of DPPC:Chol in increasing concentrations (9:1, 9:2, 9:3, 7:3, 9:4 e 9:5 molar ratio) were studied by the biophysical parameters as well as by the insertion ability of the enzyme into those systems. A significant decrease in the enthalpy values with the increase of the cholesterol proportion in the liposome was observed. Besides that, the presence of cholesterol has allowed a reduction in the insertion of the catalytic activity in up to 42% when the lipid composition 9:5 DPPPC:Chol was used. Among the binary systems formed with molar ratios of 9:1, the one which showed the highest percentage of TNAP reconstitution was the DPPC:Chol system, with around 62% enzyme incorporation. The tertiary systems had around 30% incorporation of the catalytic activity, and the quaternary system around 25%. Besides the enzymatic activity assays, the enzyme incorporation to the vesicular systems can also be verified by the thermodynamic parameters change detected by DSC. In the calorimetry studies of all the proteoliposomes formed, significant decreases in the enthalpy values were observed when compared to the corresponding liposomes systems. Thereby, the results presented here provide new information that can contribute to understand the alkaline phosphatase behavior in the presence of different microdomain lipid compositions existent in the membrane, as well as understanding the regulation processes of the enzyme during the biomineralization process.

Advances in high performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry made in proteomics and now applied to the emerging field of lipidomics has enabled the identification of lipid composition at the molecular level. These improvements have given fresh impetus to lipid research. Modulating lipid compositions has been suggested to represent a novel therapeutic target for intervention in Alzheimer’s disease. A better understanding of how metabolic alterations in the lipid landscape alter Alzheimer’s disease prognosis is required to realize this promise. To achieve this goal, further methodological improvement in lipidomic data acquisition and analysis are required as are comprehensive comparative analyses of lipid metabolism at the systems level in clinical samples and mouse models of human neurodegenerative disease. In this thesis, I present two new lipidomic bioinformatic tools Retention Time Standardization and Registration (RTStaR) and Visualization and Phospholipid Identification (VaLID) designed to facilitate analysis of high performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry lipidomic data. Using these tools and methodologies, I then comparatively profiled the glycerophosphocholine lipidome in the plasma of young adults, cognitively normal elderly with vascular impairment, mild cognitive impairment and late-onset Alzheimer’s disease patients and the entorhinal-hippocampal circuit of late-onset Alzheimer’s disease patients, TgCRND8 human amyloid beta precursor protein transgenic mice (Alzheimer’s disease mouse model), and across the lifespan of NonTg female littermates. Systems-level analyses identified aberrant glycerophosphocholine metabolic pathways systemically perturbed by age, disease, and amyloid beta biogenesis resulting in the regionally-specific accumulation of critical platelet-activating factor and, to a lesser extent, the lysoglycerophosphocholine, metabolites in brain that could be, in part, predicted by changes in plasma. Finally, using proteomic approaches I identified additional changes in lipid metabolic pathways associated with phenoconversion in the TgCRND8 mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease.

Les triacylglycérol (TAG) est un métabolite hautement énergétique qui peut être facilement converti en biodiesel. Les TAG peuvent être produits à partir de plantes et de microalgues. L'étude des voies de signalisation de l'énergie peut offrir de nouvelles stratégies pour améliorer l'accumulation de biomasse et de TAG sans compromettre la croissance. Dans cette thèse, j'ai étudié le rôle de deux voies principales de signalisation énergétique: la voie du de guanosine ppGpp (guanosine penta(tétra) phosphate) dans le chloroplaste et la voie de TOR (Target of rapamycin) dans le cytosol. J'ai choisi de travailler sur la mousse Physcomitrella patens, un modèle d'eucaryote photosynthétique en raison de sa position évolutive entre les algues et les plantes vasculaires. Pour étudier le rôle du ppGpp, nous avons créé des lignées transgéniques exprimant de manière inductible une ppGpp synthase et sur-accumulant le ppGpp. J'ai trouvé que l'induction de SYN provoque une forte inhibition de la capacité photosynthétique en raison de l'inhibition de l'expression des protéines clés codées par les chloroplastes et aussi une réorganisation des membranes thylakoïdes. Pour l’étude de TOR nous avons traité la mousse avec des inhibiteurs de TOR et montré que cela provoque l’inhibition de la croissance de manière dose dépendante et l’accumulation de TAG. L’utilisation des marqueurs lipidiques a révélé la perte de petites vésicules associées à la croissance et l'accumulation de plus grandes structures de corps lipidiques. Des études supplémentaires permettront de développer des stratégies pour améliorer la production de biocarburants chez les organismes photosynthétiques. / Triacylglycerol (TAG) is a highly energetic metabolite that can be easily converted into biodiesel. TAG can be produced from both plants and microalgae. However, plants have low TAG yields in their dominant vegetative tissues. Microalgae can accumulate high amounts of TAG, but only under stress, leading to growth inhibition and limiting yield. The study and manipulation of stress and energy signaling pathways can offer new strategies to improve biomass and TAG accumulation without compromising growth. In this thesis, I studied the role of two major energy signaling pathways: the guanosine penta(tetra) phosphate (ppGpp) pathway in the chloroplast and the target of rapamycin (TOR) pathway in the cytosol. I chose to work on the moss Physcomitrella patens which is an interesting model of photosynthetic eukaryote because of its evolutionary position between algae and vascular plants. To study the role of ppGpp we created transgenic lines that inducibly express a ppGpp synthase and over-accumulate ppGpp. I found that ppGpp accumulation causes a strong inhibition of photosynthetic capacity due to the inhibition of the expression of key chloroplast encoded proteins, and also reorganization of the thylakoid membrane system into super grana. For the TOR pathway, we treated P. patens protonema with active site TOR inhibitors and showed that this cause growth inhibition in a dose dependent manner and is accompanied by TAG accumulation. The use of lipid dyes reveals a shift from small growth associated vesicles to a larger oil body structures after treatment. Further studies will allow the development of new strategies for improving biofuel production in photosynthetic organisms.

In this study, we determined the effect of nutritive sweeteners at 0 to 0.50 moles/kg on lipid oxidation in a model cookie system. Confocal microscopy using Bodipy 493 as a fat soluble dye showed that the fat formed a continuous phase surrounding the starch granules regardless of sugar type. The impact of glucose concentration on lipid oxidation was monitored by lipid hydroperoxides and headspace hexanal during storage at 55°C. Low concentrations of glucose (0.09) were strong inhibitors. At equal molar concentrations, reducing sugars (glucose and fructose) inhibited lipid oxidation, greater than a two months increase in lag phase compared to the control. Sucrose inhibited lipid oxidation, but to a much lesser extent than reducing sugars. The inhibition of lipid oxidation is potentially due to sugar’s ability to bind water. Additionally, reducing sugars may exhibit this effect due to their ability to act as a hydrogen donor which could inactivate free radicals or due to the production of Maillard reaction products (MRPs). For example, the l-values were lower and b-values were higher for cookies with non-reducing sugars compared to cookies with sucrose indicating that there were more MRPs. The addition of cysteine, sulfites, and ascorbic acid acted as a strong browning inhibitors however cysteine was showed to be antioxidative. When compared to synthetic antioxidants, glucose proved to be a strong natural alternative. These results could be utilized to develop effective means of controlling water activity and extending shelf-life of low moisture baked goods.

Lipid rafts are nanoscale entities in the membranes of eukaryotic cells which provide a mechanism for the functional membrane segregation vital for several cellular processes. This lateral segregation of specific lipid and protein components provides the facilitative platforms for a variety of signaling and trafficking events at the plasma membrane and in the Golgi. Rafts are distinguished from the surrounding membranes by their physical properties and composition - they are relatively tightly packed and enriched in saturated lipids, sterols, and lipid-anchored proteins. Although the existence of rafts has been conclusively confirmed by several independent techniques, questions concerning various aspects of membrane heterogeneity are still to be addressed. Typical experiments investigating raft composition have been designed to evaluate the affinity of a given component for raft domains. In such experiments, the results are usually interpreted in a Boolean fashion, i.e., the component is either a raft molecule, or not. However, this binary point of view overlooks potential complexity that may underlie the nature of membrane heterogeneity. In this work, we systematically investigated the nature of functional cellular membrane heterogeneity. We started by characterizing the model membranes and fluorescent lipid analogs widely used in research into membrane domains. After extensively evaluating the potentials/limits of these approaches and the artifacts that must be avoided or alternatively could be exploited, we applied these tools to understand whether the cell membrane has multiple kinds of raft domains with distinct compositions and physical properties, rather than only one. We found that cell membranes have the potential to form various kinds of functional domains having different physicochemical properties, compositions, and functional outputs. Therefore, we propose continuously variable lipid packing as the principle of the functional membrane lateral heterogeneity. According to this principle, the membrane is not composed of a single variety of raft domain with strictly defined properties coexisting alongside a specific and uniform non-raft environment; rather it is composed of entities having continuously variable lipid packing. Finally, we show that this spectrum of membrane packing modulates the orientation of membrane lipid receptors, which ultimately influences their specific bioactivity. Our results showing continuously variable lipid packing and its ability to fine-tune the activity of membrane molecules comprise a novel model for the structure and function of eukaryotic membranes.