Since the first colonists were settled along the Transamazon highway in Eastern Brazilian Amazon, in the early 1970s, it has been hotly debated how to guarantee their livelihoods. Over time, cattle ranching became the priority option. However, with increasing awareness about the socio- environmental drawbacks of this production system, the search for less damaging production systems was intensified. Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) based agroforestry systems present one of the most promising land use options because they conciliate attractive yields with ecosystems conservation. Independent from this, many smallholders (small-scale households) continue seeing cattle ranching as their dedication. Whether and to what degree, these perceptions and expectations are realistic is not known, as most studies concentrate on technical aspects so far. Against this backdrop, this study invested in better understanding what small-scale farmers dedicated to cacao and/or cattle can realistically expect regarding living standard of their family and the forest conservation as stability of their natural production basis. Along seven municipalities, we applied structured interviews to 95 households. As suggested by Principal Component Analysis, we used the responses about income and housing to define the economic well-being and calculate success levels for each household. We then calculated correlations and frequencies, and applied hypotheses tests (Spearman and Kruskall-Wallis). The data showed for nearly two thirds of the visited families an acceptable to good living standard (with an average income higher than 17,000 USD/year), but also, concerning weaknesses for the rest. The most relevant factors, positively related to success, were land size and level of technology. For successful households, the combination of social interactions, market niches and off-farm income showed relevancy. Cacao farmers could be as successful as cattle ranchers, regarding cacao (on suitable soils) generated at least six times higher income per hectare than cattle. When households adopted both systems the chances of success were even higher, but on the cost of more deforestation. With regards to forest conservation, agroforestry systems related to a diversification of the household economic basis, at best including the use of non-timber products of native trees, could be feasible alternatives for extensive cattle ranching. However, to diffuse such more complex production systems requires better policies and effective support grounded in a thorough institutional cooperation of multilateral stakeholders able to establish effective logistics and attractive markets for the related diverse array of products. Further studies should increase focus on the aspects of context and personal pathways of households, using complimentary descriptive methods beyond just quantitative evaluations. / Desde que os primeiros colonos foram assentados ao longo da rodovia Transamazônica, Amazônia Oriental, no início da década de 1970, se discute como garantir os meios de vida dessas famílias. Ao longo do tempo, a produção de gado se tornou a principal opção. No entanto, o aumento da preocupação com os danos ambientais promovidos pela pecuária extensiva tem chamado atenção para os sistemas agroflorestais com cacau (Theobroma cacao L.) como potencial alternativa, capaz de conciliar a produção com a conservação florestal. No entanto, agricultores familiares continuam aderindo à pecuária. Ainda existe pouco conhecimento científico para entender se, e em qual grau, essas percepções e expectativas são realísticas, pois grande parte das pesquisas têm focado em aspectos estritamente técnicos. Diante desta problemática, este estudo investigou o que os agricultores familiares, que produzem cacau e/ou gado, podem esperar em termos do padrão de vida a ser alcançado e da conservação florestal como estabilidade natural da sua base de produção. Ao longo de sete munícipios, nós aplicamos 95 entrevistas em roteiros estruturados. Conforme indicado pela Análise de Componentes Principais, usamos a renda e a moradia para definir o bem-estar econômico e calcular o nível de sucesso para cada família. Então, calculamos as correlações e frequências e aplicamos testes de hipóteses (Spearman e Kruskall-Wallis). Os resultados revelaram que aproximadamente dois terços das famílias puderam alcançar um padrão de vida em níveis aceitáveis ou bons (com renda média em torno de 17.000 dólares por ano), mas também foram destacadas dificuldades a serem consideradas. Os fatores mais relevantes, positivamente relacionados com o sucesso, foram o tamanho da terra e o nível de tecnologia. Para os agricultores bem-sucedidos, a combinação de interações sociais, nichos de mercado e renda externa demonstrou-se relevante. Produtores de cacau puderam ser tão bem-sucedidos quanto produtores de gado, considerando que o cacau (em solos favoráveis) gerou, no mínimo, seis vezes mais renda por unidade de área que o gado. Quando as famílias adotaram os dois sistemas de produção a chance de sucesso aumentou, consequentemente ao custo de maior desmatamento. Sobre a conservação florestal, os sistemas agroflorestais relacionados com a diversificação da renda familiar, no melhor dos casos incluindo o uso de produtos não-madeireiros de árvores nativas, poderia ser uma alternativa factível à pecuária extensiva. No entanto, para difundir tais sistemas produtivos mais complexos seria necessário melhores políticas e efetivo suporte fundamentado por meio de cooperações institucionais com parcerias multilaterais, capazes de estabelecer logísticas efetivas e mercados atrativos para uma diversa gama de produtos. Estudos posteriores deveriam ampliar o foco em aspectos de contexto e em trajetórias individuais, usando métodos qualitativos complementares, além de apenas avaliações quantitativas.

In dieser Arbeit wurde „Die Bedeutung der ‚Datschenwirtschaft’ für die Ernährungs-, Gesundheits- und soziokulturelle Situation der Großstadt-Bevölkerung in der Republik Belarus“ untersucht. Die Quellenlage ist dürftig, weil die Datschen einerseits Ergebnis der sozialistischen Mangelwirtschaft sind, aber andererseits kein Interesse an deren Untersuchung bestand. Aufgrund des aktuell geringen Kenntniszustandes hat diese Arbeit einen stärker explorativen und empirisch-deskriptiven Charakter. Es wurden 10 Wirkungsvermutungen entwickelt und im Hinblick auf ihre Plausibilität überprüft. Die Datschen leisten einen unverzichtbaren Beitrag zur Verbesserung der Ernährungssituation der Datschenfamilien und ihres Umfeldes. Ohne die Datschenernten kann die Ernährung der belarussischen Bevölkerung nicht gewährleistet werden. Die Datschen verbessern die Einkommenssituation, sie tragen durch verminderten Einkauf bzw. durch Verkauf von Datschenprodukten zum Einkommen der Familien bei. Die Datschen verbessern die Gesundheitssituation, können aber je nach Einzelsituation gleichzeitig gesundheitliche Gefährdungen bewirken. Die Datschen binden Zeit und Arbeitskraft der Bevölkerung und tragen damit zur politischen Systemstabilisierung bei. Sie gewähren nur einen begrenzten Freiraum gegenüber der Politik. Vor dem Zusammenbruch der SU leisteten die Datschen einen indirekten Beitrag zur Erhaltung der Religion, indem auf den Datschen diese mit einem geringeren Gefährdungspotential praktiziert werden konnte. Die Datschen leisten einen Beitrag zur Erhaltung von Volkskunst und Brauchtum, indem diese zwischen mehreren Generationen übertragen werden. Die Datschen begünstigen zwischenmenschliche Beziehungen durch relativ homogene Interessen und Erweiterung der Begegnungsmöglichkeiten. Sie ermöglichen Selbstverwirklichung und bewirken soziale Anerkennung. Auf den Datschen sind vielerlei Kultur- sowie Baumaßnahmen und damit das Realisieren vieler Fantasien möglich. Die Entwicklung der Datschenwirtschaft ist untrennbar mit der politischen und wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung verbunden. Im Falle weiterer Restriktionen wird sich die Datschenwirtschaft als zwingende Notwendigkeit erweisen. Im Falle von Demokratisierung und wirtschaftlicher Entwicklung wird ihre Bedeutung für die Nahrungsmittelproduktion sinken. / In this investigation "the significance of the ''dacha economy'' for the diet, health and socio-cultural situation of the city population in the Republic of Belarus" was examined. The existing literature about this topic is quite miserable because the meaning of dacha economy results from the socialist economy of scarcity and in so far there was no official interest in that type of examination. Due to the currently low knowledge about the topic this investigation has a more strongly explorative and descriptive character. In a theoretical framework assumptions about the role and importance of dacha were developed and empirically checked with regard to their plausibility. The dacha economy makes an essential contribution to the improvement for diet situation of the families and their neighbourhood. Without the dacha production the diet of the Byelorussian population cannot be ensured. The dachas improve the income situation; they contribute to the income of the families by reduced purchase or by sale of products. The dachas improve the health situation; however, at the same time they can also endanger human health depending on individual situation. The dachas are occupying time and labour of the population and contribute with that to the stabilization of the political system. They offer a limited freedom against the political system. Before the collapse of the Soviet regime the dachas made an indirect contribution to the preservation of the religion because of being able to be practiced on the dacha with a lower threat. The dachas contribute to the preservation of folk art and customs by being able to be transferred between several generations. The dacha favour human relations by relatively homogeneous interests and expansion of the meeting points. It approves self-realisation and causes social recognition. By practising cultural habits as well as constructing buildings are opens chances to realize many imaginations on the dachas. The development of the dacha economy is inseparably connected to the political and economic development of the country. In the case of further restrictions the dacha economy will prove to be a mandatory necessity. In the case of democratisation and economic development it will likely lose its meaning for the food production

This thesis The system of material need benefits as an instrument of protection against poverty in the Czech Republic deals with the relationship between poverty and social benefits. The subject of research is to analyze the impact of system material need benefits to deals problem of poverty. The theoretical basis for thesis is the concept of social exclusion and redistributive discourse. The theoretical part of the thesis analyzed the different concepts and identified tools of social policy in the fight against poverty. Closer is characterized by social protection and help system in the Czech Republic. The practical part of the thesis, realized through research studies and interviews with experts, analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of material need benefits and suggestions for improvement. Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)

Der Agrarsektor spielt eine dominierende Rolle in der pakistanischen Wirtschaft, indem er einen größeren Beitrag zum Bruttoinlandsprodukt leistet und einem großen Teil der Erwerbsbevölkerung Arbeitsplätze bietet. Punjab ist die größte Provinz Pakistans in Bezug auf landwirtschaftliche Produktion und Bevölkerung. Die Mehrheit der Bauern in Punjab sind Kleinbauern. Diese Kleinbauern sind größtenteils arm und haben eine geringere menschliche Entwicklung. Infolgedessen bleibt die landwirtschaftliche Produktion entweder qualitativ minderwertig oder quantitativ unzureichend, was als landwirtschaftliche Armut bezeichnet wird. Agrarwissenschaftler haben viel Arbeit geleistet, um die Produktivität des Agrarsektors durch die Verwendung von besserem Saatgut, Düngemitteln, Mechanisierung usw. zu verbessern. Die aktuelle Studie zielte darauf ab, den Zusammenhang zwischen landwirtschaftlicher Armut und menschlicher Entwicklung bei Kleinbauern in Punjab zu untersuchen. Primärdaten wurden von 250 Kleinbauern in 5 Distrikten von Punjab gesammelt. Die Analyse der binären logistischen Regression wurde verwendet, um die Beziehung zwischen den Dimensionen der menschlichen Entwicklung und der landwirtschaftlichen Armut eingehend zu analysieren. Bei der Analyse der Daten fand die Studie einen umgekehrten Zusammenhang zwischen landwirtschaftlicher Armut und allen drei Dimensionen der menschlichen Entwicklung, d. H. Bildung, Gesundheit und Lebensstandard der Kleinbauern in Punjab. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass die bessere Bildung, Gesundheit und der bessere Lebensstandard die Wahrscheinlichkeit verringern, dass der Landwirt landwirtschaftliche Armut hat. Die Regierung von Punjab der menschlichen Entwicklung von Kleinbauern bei der Ausarbeitung einer Politik besondere Aufmerksamkeit widmen sollte. Die Regierung sollte sicherstellen, dass die Kleinbauern in Punjab über Bildung und Sensibilisierung, Gesundheitseinrichtungen und einfache Kredite verfügen. / Agriculture sector plays a dominant role in Pakistan economy by making a greater contribution to Gross Domestic Product and providing employment to a huge portion of labor force. Punjab is the largest province of Pakistan with respect to agricultural production and population. Majority of the farmers in Punjab are small land holders. These small farmers are mostly poor and having lower levels of human development. low level of human development among small farmers obstructed the growth of agriculture in Punjab. As a result, the agricultural output remains either inferior in quality of insufficient in quantity which is termed as Agricultural poverty. A lot of work has been done by agricultural scientists globally on improving the productivity of agricultural sector by the use of better seed, fertilizers, mechanization etc. The current study aimed to explore the relationship between Agricultural poverty and human development among small farmers in Punjab. Primary data was collected from 250 small farmers in 5 districts of Punjab. Binary Logistic Regression analysis was used to analyze the relationship between the dimensions of human development and agricultural poverty. The study found inverse relationship between Agricultural poverty and all three dimensions of human development i.e Education, health and living standard of the small farmers in Punjab. Results revealed that the better education, health and living standard decreases the probability of the farmer to have agricultural poverty. Agriculture sector and farmers remained one of the most neglected part of the society by policy makers. Among farmers, the small farmers are most vulnerable. There is a need of extensive policy. It is suggested that the Government of Punjab should pay special attention to the human development of small farmers while devising policy. Government should ensure the provision of education and awareness, health facilities and easy credit to the small farmers in Punjab.

Text in Afrikaans, abstract in Afrikaans and English / Different methods of calculation of the loss of support of minor children, are investigated. According to one method (A), one first has to establish that the deceased's income was not all absorbed for his/her own maintenance. Only if there is surplus income available, it can be inferred that the deceased contributed towards the maintenance of the minor children and that the children have suffered a loss. According to another method (B) both parents' income are added and then divided between the family members. The minor child's loss of support is an amount which represent his/her share in the deceased's own income - a child automatically suffers a loss according to this method, in the event of death of a parent. Method B ought to be applied, because it is consistent with the reciprocal duty of support between spouses and the duty of spouses to maintain children. / Verskillende metodes om die verlies aan onderhoud van afhanklike kinders te bereken word ondersoek. Volgens een benadering (A) moet eers vasgestel word of die oorledene se inkomste nie alles geabsorbeer is vir sy /haar eie onderhoud nie. Slegs indien daar surplusinkomste was, kan aanvaar word dat die oorledene bygedra het tot die onderhoud van die minderjarige kinders en dat die kinders 'n verlies ly. Volgens die ander benadering (B) word beide ouers se inkomste bymekaar getel en dan tussen die gesinslede verdeel. Elke minderjarige kind se verlies aan onderhoud is 'n bedrag wat sy/haar aandeel in die oorlede ouer se afsonderlike inkomste verteenwoordig - 'n kind ly outomaties volgens hierdie metode 'n verlies. Metode B behoort meestal aanwending te vind, aangesien dit in ooreenstemming is met die wederkerige onderhoudsplig tussen gades en die plig van ouers om hul kinders te onderhou. / Private Law / LL. M. (Law)

Text in Afrikaans, abstract in Afrikaans and English / Different methods of calculation of the loss of support of minor children, are investigated. According to one method (A), one first has to establish that the deceased's income was not all absorbed for his/her own maintenance. Only if there is surplus income available, it can be inferred that the deceased contributed towards the maintenance of the minor children and that the children have suffered a loss. According to another method (B) both parents' income are added and then divided between the family members. The minor child's loss of support is an amount which represent his/her share in the deceased's own income - a child automatically suffers a loss according to this method, in the event of death of a parent. Method B ought to be applied, because it is consistent with the reciprocal duty of support between spouses and the duty of spouses to maintain children. / Verskillende metodes om die verlies aan onderhoud van afhanklike kinders te bereken word ondersoek. Volgens een benadering (A) moet eers vasgestel word of die oorledene se inkomste nie alles geabsorbeer is vir sy /haar eie onderhoud nie. Slegs indien daar surplusinkomste was, kan aanvaar word dat die oorledene bygedra het tot die onderhoud van die minderjarige kinders en dat die kinders 'n verlies ly. Volgens die ander benadering (B) word beide ouers se inkomste bymekaar getel en dan tussen die gesinslede verdeel. Elke minderjarige kind se verlies aan onderhoud is 'n bedrag wat sy/haar aandeel in die oorlede ouer se afsonderlike inkomste verteenwoordig - 'n kind ly outomaties volgens hierdie metode 'n verlies. Metode B behoort meestal aanwending te vind, aangesien dit in ooreenstemming is met die wederkerige onderhoudsplig tussen gades en die plig van ouers om hul kinders te onderhou. / Private Law / LL. M. (Law)

The aim of this thesis is to analyze the problem of poverty, describing the concept, explain the reasons and causes of poverty and to propose solutions for its prevention. Furthermore, the analysis of poverty in the Czech Republic and comparison with selected EU countries. The last part of my work will develop a proposal for measures in the fight against poverty. The thesis was divided into two parts. The first part featured a brief theoretical view of poverty as a social event. There were defining poverty, its types, forms, indicators of poverty by international organizations. This section was included in the issue of the causes of poverty, the effects of poverty, both primary and secondary, social exclusion (exclusion). This part is followed by chapter tools to eliminate poverty in the Czech social policy. These tools include: subsistence, assistance in material need, living allowance, housing subsidy, extraordinary immediate assistance and minimum wage. These tools form a complex, which currently works fairly well. Most of the tools work to eliminate poverty target, this means that these tools are used quite effectively. The practical part is based on knowledge of the theoretical perspective on poverty. Includes a brief analysis of poverty in the Czech Republic and also compares it with other EU...