It is common practice to re‐release wildlife back into the wild, even though there is little data on the effectiveness of this practice with respect to animal welfare or cost effectiveness. The aim of my study was to examine the post‐release behaviour of captive‐reared orphaned stone martens (Martes foina) and the impact of conspecifics' presence on this behaviour. Radio‐telemetry was used to collect behavioural and survival data; a questionnaire survey within the local community and live‐trapping were used to determine the presence of other martens and to investigate public attitudes towards martens. Specific aims were to determine: (1) the post‐release survival of martens; (2) the potential for human‐marten conflict; (3) the martens' pattern of post‐release ranging behaviour; and (4) the impact of conspecifics' presence on this behaviour. On the basis of previous studies, I expected abnormal behaviour immediately after release, together with a reasonable rate of short‐term survival; but there was no previous evidence relating to mid‐ or long‐term survival. A total of twelve martens were released, of which eight were followed successfully for at least 4 months. There was considerable individual variation in post‐release behaviour. Survival rate was high (0.66), indicating that young martens were able to establish sustainable home ranges. Released martens did not seem to cause significant human‐wildlife conflict and only one of the released animals settled in a village. Live‐trapping and the questionnaire survey indicated that martens were already established in the area and I suggest that this was why more of the young captive‐reared martens did not settle in villages. Public attitudes towards martens were generally positive. I conclude that in the medium‐term, release of captive‐reared martens is acceptable as regards animal welfare and cost‐effectiveness. However, further work is needed to examine long‐term survival and post‐release behaviour.

A espécie recente Eira barbara (Mustelidae, Carnivora) possui uma distribuição geográfica desde o México até o norte da Argentina. É um importante táxon a ser estudado como modelo anatômico dentre os mustelídeos, assim como um importante modelo para uma melhor compreensão e entendimento sobre a diversificação dos Mustelidae. Atualmente, os registros fósseis de E. barbara na América do Sul são bastante escassos e restritos às idades pleistocênicas, sendo que os estudos destes fósseis são frequentemente desprovidos de maiores esforços para realização de descrições morfológicas detalhadas e de estudos paleobiogeográficos. Assim como os estudos dos fósseis de E. barbara são limitados, constatou-se que o mesmo cenário é observado quanto aos estudos sobre a morfologia e biogeografia da espécie. Desta forma, o presente trabalho se propôs a: realizar uma revisão de todos os registros da espécie e de uma forma geral, contribuir para um melhor conhecimento sobre a morfologia sincraniana e sobre a história biogeográfica e paleobiogeográfica de E. barbara. Para tanto, os seguintes objetivos foram propostos: estudo e redescrição detalhada do fóssil UFAC-PV 036, proveniente do Pleistoceno final do Alto Rio Juruá do sudoeste da Amazônia Brasileira; descrição sincraniana comparada de estruturas morfológicas externas e internas, analisando caracteres intraespecíficos da espécie E. barbara; realização de análises multivariadas a fim de investigar variações geográficas sob o uso de caracteres craniométricos de E. barbara entre os diferentes biomas brasileiros. A revisão dos registros fósseis foi de grande importância para o estabelecimento dos verdadeiros registros de Eira na América do Sul e a redescrição de UFAC-PV 36 contribui para o melhor conhecimento morfológico e paleobiogeográfico da espécie. A descrição morfológica comparada do sincrânio de E. barbara contribui de forma significativa para o conhecimento sobre a morfologia da espécie bem como, a descrição de caracteres intraespecíficos proporcionam caracteres mais apropriados em matrizes morfológicas, fornecendo maior robustez nas análises filogenéticas futuras. Este trabalho propõe que E. barbara não possui diferenças craniométricas estatisticamente significativas entre os biomas brasileiros, porém, E. barbara caracteriza-se aqui como uma espécie dimórfica, na qual os machos possuem estruturas cranianas relativamente maiores do que as fêmeas. / The recent species Eira barbara (Mustelidae, Carnivora) has a geographic distribution from Mexico to northern Argentina. It is an important taxon to be studied as an anatomical model for the mustelids, as well as an important model for a better understanding of the diversification of the Mustelidae. Currently, the fossil record of E. barbara in South America is scarce and restricted to the Pleistocene, while the studies of these fossils frequently lack greater efforts to perform detailed morphological descriptions and paleobiogeographic studies. Besides limited studies of fossil E. barbara, it was established that the same scenario is seen for the studies on the morphology and biogeography of the species. Thus, this work proposed to: perform a review of all records of the species and, in general, to contribute to a better understanding of the sincranian morphology and the biogeographic and paleobiogeographic studies of E. barbara. In order to achieve this, the following objectives were proposed: study and detailed redescription of the fossil UFAC PV-036 from the Late Pleistocene of Upper Juruá River of the southwest of Brazilian Amazon; compared sincranian description of external and internal morphological structures, analyzing intraspecific characters of extant E. barbara; performance of multivariate analysis to investigate geographical variations on the use of craniometric characters of E. barbara between different Brazilian biomes. The review of the fossil record was of great importance for the establishment of the actual records of the species in South America, while the redescription of UFAC PV-36 contributes to a better anatomical and paleobiogeographic knowledge of the species. The morphological description of the sincranium of E. barbara contribute significantly to the knowledge of the morphology of the species, as much as the description of intraspecific variation provides more appropriate morphological characters in matrices, providing greater robustness in futures phylogenetic analysis. This work proposes that E. barbara does not have statistically significant craniometric differences among Brazilian biomes; however, E. barbara is characterized here as a dimorphic species in which the males have cranial structures relatively larger than the females.

La familia Mustelidae es la más diversa del Orden Carnivora, representada por 22 géneros vivientes, que presentan una gran variación eco-morfológica. Los mustélidos de América del Sur están representados por 11 especies vivientes: el gulonino Eira barbara; los hurones ictoniquinos lincodontininos Lyncodon patagonicus, Galictis cuja y Ga. vittata; los lutrinos Lontra felina, Lo. longicaudis, Lo. provocax y Pteronura brasiliensis; y los hurones mustelinos Mustela frenata, Mu. felipei y Mu. africana. Los ictoniquinos son la subfamilia más antigua dentro del subcontinente (Plioceno Tardío-actualidad), representados por múltiples especies extintas de los dos géneros actuales y por Stipanicicia pettorutii, representante del único género extinto; otros linajes de mustélidos de América del Sur se registran a partir del Pleistoceno. La musculatura postcraneal de los mustélidos fue estudiada intensamente en el siglo XIX, aunque las especies de América del Sur permanecen prácticamente inexploradas. Estudios de la osteología postcraneal han demostrado correspondencias entre la morfología, los tipos locomotores y otras variables (e.g., tamaño corporal, filogenia, estrategia de caza). Sin embargo, varios tópicos permanecen pobremente explorados, especialmente en lo que respecta a las especies de América del Sur. Por otro lado, el postcráneo prácticamente no ha sido evaluado como fuente potencial de caracteres filogenéticos. El objetivo de esta Tesis fue analizar la diversidad morfológica postcraneal de los mustélidos extintos y vivientes de América del Sur, explorando su relación con distintos factores (e.g., locomoción, hábitos alimentarios, tamaño corporal, estructura filogenética), en un marco comparativo. Los materiales miológicos estudiados incluyen a tres especímenes de Galictis cuja. Se estudió exhaustivamente la musculatura craneal y postcraneal. Se describieron variantes intraespecíficas y se realizaron mapas musculares y pesado de cada músculo. Se realizó un estudio osteológico descriptivo detallado de siete especies de mustélidos de América del Sur. Se realizaron análisis morfo-funcionales cualitativos y cuantitativos en un marco comparativo a nivel Musteloidea. Se describieron en detalle siete especímenes fósiles con elementos postcraneales preservados, así como también materiales craneales de lincodontininos fósiles, incluyendo a S. pettorutii. Se construyeron 8 índices sintetizando las longitudes relativas de las principales regiones axiales y apendiculares. Se tomaron fotografías orientadas de cuatro elementos postcraneales (axis, penúltima vértebra lumbar, extremo distal del húmero y proximal del fémur), realizándose análisis de morfometría geométrica y análisis de componentes principales por grupos. Para evaluar el efecto de la locomoción y la dieta sobre las variables lineales y de forma se realizaron análisis de la varianza considerándose la estructura filogenética de los datos y la influencia del tamaño. Para evaluar el valor filogenético y obtener reconstrucciones de estados ancestrales de los principales rasgos miológicos y osteológicos, se diseñaron, codificaron y optimizaron caracteres osteológicos (83 caracteres x 31 taxones; cinco caracteres continuos y 78 discretos) y musculares (47 caracteres x 32 taxones). La descripción miológica de Ga. cuja reveló rasgos de importancia. La musculatura cervical es voluminosa y está muy subdividida (e.g., sternocephalicus, cleidocephalicus), incluyendo múltiples paquetes profundos de inserciones “lateralizadas” (mm. obliquus capitis, rectus capitis, multifidi cervicis). La región torácica presenta numerosos y amplios músculos rotadores. La musculatura epiaxial lumbar está dominada por el m. iliocostalis, mientras que la hipoaxial está compuesta de metámeros breves. Los extensores fuertes del miembro posterior (e.g., isquiotibiales, extensores del tobillo), son voluminosos y de inserciones relativamente distales. Los flexores rápidos (e.g., m. infraspinatus, m. gluteus) y estabilizadores articulares (e.g., m. anconeus, m. articularis coxae) de ambas extremidades están reducidos o ausentes. El m. brachioradialis presenta variantes intraespecíficas con un origen extendido proximalmente. Los protractores y extensores del miembro anterior (contrariamente a sus antagonistas), están marcadamente desarrollados y subdivididos, con un m. rhomboideus profundus y capitis separados. Existen múltiples fascículos biarticulares y aductores en ambos miembros. Los flexores del hombro (e.g., m. infraspinatus) y codo (e.g., m. biceps brachii, m. brachialis) y aductores de ambas extremidades están reducidos, mientras que el m. coracobrachialis se encuentra ausente. El análisis de la miología de Ga. cuja permitió reconocer rasgos relacionados con las estrategias de caza y locomoción en galerías y half-bound. A partir de las optimizaciones y análisis comparativo se determinaron rasgos miológicos potencialmente informativos respecto a la estructura filogenética. En las descripciones y análisis osteológicos se reconoce la presencia un cuello largo, con regiones de agarre muscular bien desarrolladas para todos los mustélidos de América del Sur. La región tóraco-lumbar es alargada en lutrinos y lincodontininos. Se registra una gran diversidad de variantes en la región lumbar y caudal (forma, fórmula vertebral, proporciones). En la región lumbar, los cuerpos y procesos son elongados en los hurones y Ei. barbara. En la región caudal, Ly. patagonicus y Galictis spp. presentan arcos neurales reducidos. Eira barbara presenta una cola elongada, móvil y de elementos distales delgados, mientras que Galictis spp. y lutrinos presentan colas amplias con numerosos procesos espinosos caudales, y en las nutrias, con procesos transversos en forma de "H". Los elementos apendiculares son relativamente largos y delgados en Ei. barbara, mientras que en las nutrias son robustos y con amplias áreas de agarres musculares. El plano isquio-púbico, la cabeza y la tróclea femoral de los lutrinos presentan una configuración particular. El ilion y los trocánteres del fémur se encuentran reducidos en los hurones. Las regiones articulares del hombro, codo, cadera y rodilla favorecen movimientos mayormente dentro del plano sagital en los hurones, mientras que las restricciones son menores en Ei. barbara y lutrinos. En la muñeca, carpo y tarso de Ei. barbara se registra el mayor grado de movilidad, mientras que en lutrinos existen mayores restricciones. En hurones y lutrinos, el zeugopodio es ancho. Los autopodios de Ly. patagonicus son gráciles y elongados, mientras que en Ei. barbara y especialmente en lutrinos son más robustos y amplios. Para el caso de los siete especímenes fósiles, se confirmaron las asignaciones previas o propusieron por primera vez asignaciones taxonómicas, todas a ellas correspondiendo a especies actuales. El estudio comparativo de la morfología postcraneal de los mustélidos mediante los diversos enfoques considerados, permitió relacionar un gran número de rasgos anatómicos a los diversos hábitos de vida y tamaños corporales, siendo también informativos de la historia evolutiva y afinidades filogenéticas. En los half-bounders, la musculatura epiaxial, extensora de la cadera y del tobillo, encargada de la propulsión en marchas a saltos, músculos que cuentan con importantes superficies de agarre muscular (e.g., plano isquio-púbico y zeugopodio posterior). El gran desarrollo de la musculatura extensora y protractora del miembro anterior y sus áreas de orígenes (e.g., fosa supraespinosa, proceso subhamatus) concuerdan con la especialización del miembro anterior en la amortiguación de los saltos. Los nadadores presentan un gran número de rasgos postcraneales únicos vinculados al nado. Desde la región cervical a caudal son capaces de realizar movimientos amplios y poderosos de flexo-extensión. La morfología de los miembros (e.g., húmero de curvatura sigmoidea, amplitud y posición "dorsalizada" del plano isquio-púbico, fémur breve) y gran desarrollo de áreas de agarre muscular (e.g., ala de la escápula, crestas del húmero, ilion) se relacionan a una posición caudal habitual de los miembros y a la generación de poderosos movimientos de propulsión. Los trepadores presentan regiones postdiafragmáticas largas, miembros largos y articulaciones con amplias libertades de movimientos. Los músculos estabilizadores, aductores y abductores, así como sus áreas de agarre (e.g., acromion, cresta pectoral, cresta epicondilar, ala del ilion) están bien desarrollados. En los trepadores ágiles como los guloninos, las colas largas y livianas son útiles durante el balance, pero sin permitir prensión. Las falanges ungueales, recurvadas y agudas, son el principal medio de sujeción sin existir grandes capacidades de manipulación (si presentes en muchos prociónidos y Ailurus). Los cavadores presentan músculos retractores, aductores y abductores del miembro anterior y flexores del hombro y muñeca voluminosos, con amplias áreas de agarre (e.g., crestas, tubérculos y epicóndilos del húmero, olécranon, tubérculo del carpal accesorio), similar a trepadores y nadadores. La musculatura extensora del codo desarrollada, miembro anterior relativamente elongado, restricciones articulares en el codo y carpo, y modificaciones en las proporciones del autopodio anterior, les permiten la penetración y remoción del sustrato. La características de la región lumbar (e.g., reducida en longitud y rígida), articulación sacro-ilíaca reforzada y miembros posteriores robustos permiten transmitir y resistir las fuerzas generadas en la región anterior del cuerpo. Se reconocen también características en la región axial y pelvis vinculadas al comportamiento aposemático de tipo battle-flag de ictoniquinos y mefítidos, así como características cervicales informativas del grado de carnivoría y estrategias de caza de distintos linajes. El plan corporal de los grisones puede considerarse generalizado, permitiéndoles depredar sobre un espectro variado de presas y moverse con facilidad sobre la superficie y en túneles subterráneos, lo que posiblemente permitió al linaje establecerse en variados ambientes de América del Sur. Las evidencias recabadas apoyan la posibilidad de una antigua vinculación a hábitos acuáticos para el linaje. Lyncodon patagonicus se encontraría altamente especializado en la caza de roedores fosoriales. Este taxón converge con los linajes de mustelinos más especializados en un tamaño corporal pequeño, cuello de movimientos amplios y poderosos, miembros y cola reducidos, una región axial muy larga y móvil. La anatomía mastoidea de S. pettorutii sugiere que habría poseído una musculatura mastoidea más marcadamente desarrollada y subdividida que otros lincodontininos, indicando poderosos y complejos movimientos cervicales lo que, junto con otros rasgos craneales, indicaría que fue capaz de depredar sobre presas de gran tamaño relativo. Eira barbara es posiblemente es el mustélido más especializado al sustrato arbóreo; presenta un gran número de rasgo intermedios entre musteloideos galopantes y mustélidos weasel-like aunque muchos rasgos (zeugopodios relativamente breves, zona axial flexible, y cuello elongado y musculoso) la vinculan a un plan ancestral weasel-like. Los representantes sudamericanos de Lontra difieren de la especie norteamericana Lo. canadensis en poseer los miembros anteriores y dígitos más largos, evidenciando una mayor capacidad de manipulación y/o propulsión braquial. Por otro lado, las nutrias de América del Sur, y especialmente Pt. brasiliensis, poseen regiones axiales, y específicamente colas, altamente especializadas al nado. Se sugiere un plan weasel-like ancestral para Mustelidae-Taxidea. Un gran número de rasgos postcraneales son propuestos como filogenéticamente informativos a diferentes niveles jerárquicos, e.g., osteológicos: presencia de foramen alar del atlas, abertura de foramen transverso de C7, morfología de arcos neurales de vértebras caudales, tipo de contactos entre carpales; miológicos: configuración de los mm. rhomboideus, sistemas epiaxial es y del m. semitendinosus, posición de origen del m. brachioradialis. Esta fuente de caracteres prácticamente inexplorada podría ser utilizada en futuros estudios filogenéticos. / The Family Mustelidae is the most diverse one within the Order Canivora. Compound by 22 extant genera, it shows a wide ecomorphological variation. There are 11 extant South American mustelids species: the scansorial gulonine Eira barbara; the ictonychine lyncodontinine weasels Lyncodon patagonicus, Galictis cuja y Ga. vittata; the lutrines Lontra felina, Lo. longicaudis, Lo. Provocax, and Pteronura brasiliensis; and the musteline weasels Mustela frenata, Mu. felipei, and Mu. africana. The ictonychines are the oldest subfamily in the subcontinent (Late Pliocene-Recent), represented by numerous extinct species belonging to the extant genera and by the only extinct genus Stipanicicia, represented by S. pettorutii; other mustelid lineages of South America were recorded since the Pleistocene. Mustelid postcranial musculature was intensively studied during the XIX century, although South American species remained almost unexplored. Previous studies of postcranial osteology reported a close association between morphology and locomotor modes and other variables (e.g., body size, phylogeny, hunting behavior). Nevertheless, many topics remain scarcely explored, especially among South American species. Furthermore, postcranium has almost not been studied as a potential source of phylogenetic characters. The goal of this thesis was to study the postcranial morphological diversity of South American extinct and extant mustelids, exploring its relationship with different factors (e.g., locomotion, food habits, body size, phylogenetic structure), within a comparative framework. In this thesis, three myological specimens of Galictis cuja were studied by dissections; cranial and postcranial musculature was exhaustively described. Individual variation was described and each muscle was weighted. Muscular maps were constructed. Also, a detailed osteological description of seven South American mustelids was achieved. Morphofuctional qualitative and quantitative analyses were performed within a comparative framework at the Musteloidea level. Seven fossil specimens with preserved postcranial elements were described in detail, as well as cranial specimens of fossil lyncodontinines, including S. pettorutti. Eight indexes summarizing the relative length of axial and appendicular regions were constructed. Four postcranial elements (axis, penultimate lumbar vertebra, distal end of the humerus and proximal end of the femur) were analyzed using geometric morphometric approaches; betweengroups principal component analysis were performed in order to capture, summarize, and assess the diversity of shapes for each studied element. To evaluate the effect of the locomotion and diet on the linear and shape variables, variance analyses were performed considering the phylogenetic structure of the data and body size influence. Osteologic and myologic characters were designed, codified, and optimized (osteologic: 83 characters x 31 taxa; five continuous and 78 discrete characters; muscular: 47 characters x 32 taxa) in order to evaluate the phylogenetic value and to obtain reconstructions of ancestral states of those characters. vi The myological description of Ga. cuja revealed remarkable features. The cervical musculature is bulky and notably subdivided (e.g., sternocephalicus, cleidocephalicus), including numerous deep bundles with “lateralized” insertions (mm. obliquus capitis, rectus capitis, multifidi cervicis) associated to strong and complex movements. The thoracic region is elongated and narrow, with wide spinous processes and numerous and wide rotator muscles. The epaxial lumbar musculature is dominated by the m. iliocostalis, while the hipoaxial one is made of short metameres, evidence of a high intervertebral mobility. Strong extensors of the hind limb (e.g., hamstrings, ankle extensors) which dominate the propulsion forwards during half-bound, were massive and have relatively distal insertions. The fast flexors (e.g., mm. infraspinatus, m. gluteus) and joint stabilizers (e.g., m. anconeus, m. articularis coxae) of both limbs are reduced or absent. The m. brachioradialis has intraspecific variants with a proximally extended origin. Protractors and extensors of the forelimb (on the contrary to its antagonists) are markedly developed and subdivided, with separated m. rhomboideus profundus and capitis. Also, there are many biarticular fascicules and adductors in both limbs. The shoulder (e.g., m. infraspinatus) and elbow (e.g., m. biceps brachii, m. brachialis) flexors and adductors of both limbs are reduced, while the m. coracobrachialis is absent. The myological analysis of Ga. cuja allowed recognizing features related to hunting behavior, subterranean locomotion and halfbound gait employed by the species. From the optimizations and comparative analyses, many myological features were determined as potentially informative regarding to the phylogenetic structure. Osteologic descriptions and analyses documented a long neck, with very well developed muscular attachment surfaces in all South American mustelids. The thoraco-lumbar region is elongated in lutrines and lyncodontinines. There is a great diversity in the lumbar and caudal regions (shape, vertebral formula, proportions). In the former region, the vertebral body and processes are elongated in weasels and Ei. barbara. In the caudal region, Ly. patagonicus and Galictis spp. display reduced neural arches. Eira barbara has an elongated mobile tail, with thin distal elements, while Galictis spp. and lutrines have wide tails with numerous caudal spinous processes and, in otters, with H-shaped transverse processes. Appendicular elements are relatively long in Ei. barbara, while in otters are robust, with wide surfaces for muscular attachments. The ischio-pubic plane, the femoral head and the trochlea in lutrines have a particular configuration. The ilion and both femoral trochanters are reduced in weasels. The articular regions of the shoulder, elbow, hip and knee mostly favor parasagital movements in weasels, while restrictions are smaller in Ei. barbara and lutrines. The largest degree of mobility was found in the wrist, carpus and tarsus of Ei. barbara, while in lutrines there are more restrictions. In weasels and lutrines, the zeugopods are laterally expanded. The autopodium of Ly. patagonicus is slender and elongated, while in Ei. barbara and especially in vii lutrines is robust and wide. For the seven fossil specimens, previous taxonomic assignations were confirmed, or new ones were here suggested for the first time, all of them agreeing with extant species. The comparative study of the osteological morphology of the postcranium of mustelids, analyzed by diverse and complementary approaches, allowed relating a great number of anatomical features to different habits and body size, but was also found informative for the evolutionary history and phylogenetic affinities. In half-bounders, epaxial musculature, hip extensors and ankle extensors which are the main responsible of propulsion in jumping gaits, have large attachment surfaces (e.g., ischio-pubic plane and zeugopod of the hind limb). The great development of the extensor and protractor muscles of the forelimb and their origin surfaces (e.g., supraspinous fossa, subhamatus process) coincide with the specialization of the forelimb as a shock-absorber when jumping. Swimmers have a large number of unique postcranial features associated to their swimming capabilities. From the cervical to the caudal region, they are able to perform wide and powerful flexion-extension movements. Their limb morphology (e.g., sigmoid humerus, amplitude and “dorsalized” position of the ischio-pubic plane, short femur) and the great development of the muscular attachment areas (e.g., wing of the scapula, crest of the humerus, ilium) are related to a usual caudal position of the limbs, and to strong propulsive movements. Scansorial species have long postdiaphragmatic regions, long limbs and articulations with a wide freedom of movements. Stabilizers, adductors and abductors muscles, together with their attachment surfaces (e.g., acromion, pectoral crest, epicondylar crest and wing of the ilium respectively), are well developed. In agile scansorial species such as many gulonines, long and light tails are useful during balance, but do not allow prehension. The ungueal phalanges, that are curved and acute, are the primary means of clamping, given that these species do not present manipulation abilities (that are present in many procyonids and Ailurus). Fossorial species has bulky retractor, adductors and abductor muscles of the forelimb and flexors of the shoulder and wrist, with large attachment areas (e.g., crests, tubercles and epicondyles of the humerus, olecranon process, tubercle of the accessory carpal bone), similar to scansorial and swimmer species. A developed extensor musculature of the elbow joint, a relatively elongated forelimb, articular restrictions in the elbow and carpus, and some modifications of the anterior autopodium ratios facilitate penetration and removal of the substrate. The characteristics of the lumbar region (e.g., short and rigid), the reinforced sacroiliac articulation and the short and robust hind limbs allow transmitting and resisting the forces generated in the anterior region of the body. There are also axial and pelvic features associated to the aposematic battle-flag behavior of ictonychines and mephitids, as well as cervical characteristics informative about carnivore degree and hunting behavior in different lineages. viii The body plan of grisons can be considered generalized, allowing predating on a wide spectrum of prey and moving easily on surface and tunnels, which permitted this lineage to establish in a variety of habitats in South America. Gathered evidence support the possibility of an ancient association with aquatic environments for this lineage. Lyncodon patagonicus would be highly specialized to hunt on fossorial rodents. This taxon converge with the most specialized musteline lineages in a small body size, strong and wide movements of the neck, reduced limbs and tail, and a very long and mobile axial region. Mastoid anatomy of S. pettorutti suggest that it would have possessed a mastoid musculature markedly more developed and subdivided than other lyncodontinines, indicating strong and complex cervical movements, which together with other cranial features, would indicate the ability to hunt on prey with a relative large size. Eira barbara is possibly the most specialized mustelid for the arboreal substrate; it has a great number of intermediate characters between galloping and weasel-like mustelids, although many features such as relatively short limbs, flexible axial region and elongated and muscular neck, associate it to an ancestral weasel-like body plan. South American representatives of Lontra differ of the North American species Lo. canadensis in having longer forelimbs and digits, revealing a wider manipulation capability and/or brachial propulsion. On the other hand, South American otters, and specially Pt. brasiliensis, have axial regions and specifically tails, highly specialized for swimming. A weasel-like plan is suggested as ancestral for Mustelidae-Taxidea clade. A great number of postcranial features are suggested as phylogenetically informative at different hierarchical levels, e.g., osteologic: presence of the alar foramen of the atlas, opening of the transverse foramen of the C7, morphology of the neural arches of the caudal vertebrae, contact configuration among carpal bones; myological: configuration of the mm. rhomboideus, epaxial systems and the m. semitendinosus, position of the origin of the m. brachioradialis. This mostly unexplored source of characters could be useful in future phylogenetic analyses.

A espécie recente Eira barbara (Mustelidae, Carnivora) possui uma distribuição geográfica desde o México até o norte da Argentina. É um importante táxon a ser estudado como modelo anatômico dentre os mustelídeos, assim como um importante modelo para uma melhor compreensão e entendimento sobre a diversificação dos Mustelidae. Atualmente, os registros fósseis de E. barbara na América do Sul são bastante escassos e restritos às idades pleistocênicas, sendo que os estudos destes fósseis são frequentemente desprovidos de maiores esforços para realização de descrições morfológicas detalhadas e de estudos paleobiogeográficos. Assim como os estudos dos fósseis de E. barbara são limitados, constatou-se que o mesmo cenário é observado quanto aos estudos sobre a morfologia e biogeografia da espécie. Desta forma, o presente trabalho se propôs a: realizar uma revisão de todos os registros da espécie e de uma forma geral, contribuir para um melhor conhecimento sobre a morfologia sincraniana e sobre a história biogeográfica e paleobiogeográfica de E. barbara. Para tanto, os seguintes objetivos foram propostos: estudo e redescrição detalhada do fóssil UFAC-PV 036, proveniente do Pleistoceno final do Alto Rio Juruá do sudoeste da Amazônia Brasileira; descrição sincraniana comparada de estruturas morfológicas externas e internas, analisando caracteres intraespecíficos da espécie E. barbara; realização de análises multivariadas a fim de investigar variações geográficas sob o uso de caracteres craniométricos de E. barbara entre os diferentes biomas brasileiros. A revisão dos registros fósseis foi de grande importância para o estabelecimento dos verdadeiros registros de Eira na América do Sul e a redescrição de UFAC-PV 36 contribui para o melhor conhecimento morfológico e paleobiogeográfico da espécie. A descrição morfológica comparada do sincrânio de E. barbara contribui de forma significativa para o conhecimento sobre a morfologia da espécie bem como, a descrição de caracteres intraespecíficos proporcionam caracteres mais apropriados em matrizes morfológicas, fornecendo maior robustez nas análises filogenéticas futuras. Este trabalho propõe que E. barbara não possui diferenças craniométricas estatisticamente significativas entre os biomas brasileiros, porém, E. barbara caracteriza-se aqui como uma espécie dimórfica, na qual os machos possuem estruturas cranianas relativamente maiores do que as fêmeas. / The recent species Eira barbara (Mustelidae, Carnivora) has a geographic distribution from Mexico to northern Argentina. It is an important taxon to be studied as an anatomical model for the mustelids, as well as an important model for a better understanding of the diversification of the Mustelidae. Currently, the fossil record of E. barbara in South America is scarce and restricted to the Pleistocene, while the studies of these fossils frequently lack greater efforts to perform detailed morphological descriptions and paleobiogeographic studies. Besides limited studies of fossil E. barbara, it was established that the same scenario is seen for the studies on the morphology and biogeography of the species. Thus, this work proposed to: perform a review of all records of the species and, in general, to contribute to a better understanding of the sincranian morphology and the biogeographic and paleobiogeographic studies of E. barbara. In order to achieve this, the following objectives were proposed: study and detailed redescription of the fossil UFAC PV-036 from the Late Pleistocene of Upper Juruá River of the southwest of Brazilian Amazon; compared sincranian description of external and internal morphological structures, analyzing intraspecific characters of extant E. barbara; performance of multivariate analysis to investigate geographical variations on the use of craniometric characters of E. barbara between different Brazilian biomes. The review of the fossil record was of great importance for the establishment of the actual records of the species in South America, while the redescription of UFAC PV-36 contributes to a better anatomical and paleobiogeographic knowledge of the species. The morphological description of the sincranium of E. barbara contribute significantly to the knowledge of the morphology of the species, as much as the description of intraspecific variation provides more appropriate morphological characters in matrices, providing greater robustness in futures phylogenetic analysis. This work proposes that E. barbara does not have statistically significant craniometric differences among Brazilian biomes; however, E. barbara is characterized here as a dimorphic species in which the males have cranial structures relatively larger than the females.

Orientador: Marlene Tiduko Ueta / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-08T00:02:43Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Alarcon_DiegoFernandes_M.pdf: 8141836 bytes, checksum: 830e38e5f19d73153a16ed4df89c73bc (MD5) Previous issue date: 2006 / Resumo: Os helmintos intestinais de Lontra longicaudis (CARNIVORA, MUSTELIDAE) foram estudados, com os materiais fecais recolhidos de um pequeno riacho (Riacho Ribeirão Cachoeira) localizado em um fragmento florestal de Mata Atlântica, e de uma lagoa localizada no condomínio Notredame, ambos situados no município de Campinas, mais precisamente no distrito de Sousas. O objetivo foi relacionar, pelo levantamento de parasitas intestinais, aspectos tróficos e comportamentais de L. longicaudis à aquisição de parasitas. Em laboratório, o material fecal de cada local foi processado e analisado individualmente, utilizando-se os métodos qualitativos rotineiros de exame de fezes: sedimentação espontânea (HOFFMAN et al,. 1934) e Willis (WILLIS, 1921). Das 39 amostras coletadas em Ribeirão Cachoeira, 22 apresentaram resultados positivos para ovos e/ou larvas de helmintos (56,4%). Na lagoa do Notredame foram coletadas 29 amostras fecais, das quais 13 apresentaram resultados positivos para ovos ou larvas de helmintos (44,8%). Foram observados sete tipos morfológicos de ovos de helmintos e dois tipos de larvas de nematódeos. Dentre os ovos, os mais prevalentes, tanto no riacho (54,5% trematódeo; 22,7% Strongyloides) quanto na lagoa (46,2% trematódeo; 46,2% Strongyloides), foram o de um trematódeo e ovo de Strongyloides sp. Um dos tipos de larva encontrada foi o de Strongyloides sp, que foi a mais prevalente (54,5% riacho e 15,4% lagoa). Trata-se do primeiro registro de Strongyloides sp em lontras neotropicais / Abstract: The intestinal helminthes of the otter Lontra longicaudis (CARNIVORA, MUSTELIDAE) were studied. The fecal samples were collected in a creek (Ribeirão Cachoeira) situated in a forest fragment of Atlantic forest, and in a pond located in the Notredame house complex, both in the municipality of Campinas, Sousas district, São Paulo state, Brazil. The aim of the present study was to associate, through the intestinal parasites survey, trophic and behavioral aspects of L. longicaudis with the acquisition of parasites. The Faecal samples from each place was processed and analyzed individually, using the qualitative routine faecal methods: spontaneous sedimentation (HOFFMAN et al,. 1934) and Willis (WILLIS, 1921). From total 39 samples collected in Ribeirão Cachoeira creek, 22 were positive for eggs and /or larvae of helminthes (56,4%). In the Notredame house complex pond, samples from 29 total faecal samples collected, 13 showed positive results for eggs and /or larvae of helminthes (44,8%). Seven morphological types of helminthes eggs and two types of Nematode larvae were observed. Among the eggs, the most prevalent in the creek (54,5% trematode; 22,7% Strongyloides) and in the pond (46,2% trematode; 46,2% Strongyloides) were trematode egg and Strongyloides sp. egg. One of larvae found was of Strongyloides sp, type which was the most prevalent one (54,5% creek and 15,4% pond). This is the first occurrence of Strongyloides sp in neotropical otters / Mestrado / Mestre em Parasitologia

The food of the stone marten (Martes foina) was studied in synantrophic enviroment in four localities. Localities were choosen with the aim to follow an urbanization gradient from the center of the city, through its periphery to small villages. The composition of a diet was studied by non-invasive method, by analysis of faeces. Macroscopic remains of the food were divided into eleven categories (mammals, birds, bird eggs, fish, unidentified vertebrates, invertebrates, fruits, vegetative plant parts, anthropogenic material, stones and unidentified remains). 104 different animal and plant taxa were identified. There was often found anthropogenic material. Differences in the diet according the type of enviroment as well as seasonal changes were investigated by comparing of frequency of occurrence and procentual weight of remains. There were found differences between marten's food in urban and rural enviroment, especially as concerned the categories mammals, birds and fruits. Consumption of mammals follows the urbanization gradient, in urban enviroment it is the lowest, in rural localities it is higher. On the contrary, bird frequence was higher in urban environment, in rural enviroment it was lower. Weight of fruit remains was higher in rural localities than in urban ones. There were also seasonal...

Made available in DSpace on 2015-04-14T13:09:32Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 438122.pdf: 3145728 bytes, checksum: b418ed52b6536be2e9efb41f6b7dc59b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-03-23 / Taxonomy forms the basis for all biological sciences, since it is through this discipline that natural units are recognized and described. Without the correct delimitation, researches from other disciplines would be unable to report their results because they would not be sure about the identity of their study units. The current estimate that millions of species are still to be described reinforces the centrality of taxonomy, because is through its use that species are found, delimited and described. Carnivores are usually thought to be well-known mammals, but some of these taxa have not been described yet, while others have received little biogeographic and taxonomic attention, preventing a correct assessment of their richness and conservation status. The genus Galictis (Carnivora, Mustelidae) is an example of a little-studied mustelid from the Neotropics, one of the richest and most endangered regions of the world. Basic information, such as number of species, delimitation between them, diagnosis and geographic distribution, have never been thoroughly tested before, leading to uncertainties regarding the taxonomy of this genus. In order to perform a comprehensive revision of Galictis, morphological and molecular approaches were applied on the basis of records encompassing all the distribution of the genus. For the former approach, we analyzed skulls and skins from 22 zoological collections and the statistical tests showed the presence of two clusters of Galictis specimens, representing G. cuja and G. vittata. Phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial and nuclear segments supported morphological results showing two monophyletic groups, corresponding again to G. cuja and G. vittata. No other morphological grouping or evidence of a third clade was recognized with our data. All these results corroborate the existence of only two species and indicate morphological characters that effectively diagnose them. These are very useful to identify museum specimens and should also help field-based work in some situations. The correct delimitation between these units allowed the investigation of some long-standing issues about the geographic distribution of Galictis species. For example, we demonstrate the exclusive presence of G. cuja in the northeastern region of Brazil, and established the southernmost limits of G. vittata in the Amazon basin. Finally, as species were well identified and characterized, it was possible to conduct phylogeographic inferences as well as analyses of intra-specific morphological variation in G. cuja. This species contains moderate to high levels of variability and some interesting geographic patterns. These included the morphological distinction of southern Chile and Argentina, the significant genetic structuring among three broad geographic domains, and the evidence of recent demographic expansion in the Brazilian southeast. The results presented here contribute to substantially enhance our knowledge on the genus Galictis, and should help enable further studies focusing on the evolutionary history of these carnivores in the Neotropics. / A taxonomia forma a base para todas as demais ci?ncias da Biologia, uma vez que ? atrav?s dessa disciplina que as unidades de vida na natureza s?o reconhecidas e descritas. Sem a correta delimita??o das esp?cies, pesquisas de outras ?reas n?o poderiam reportar seus resultados, pois n?o teriam a certeza da identifica??o das unidades de estudo. A estimativa de que existem milh?es de esp?cies ainda para serem descritas refor?a a import?ncia da taxonomia, pois ? utilizando as ferramentas dessa disciplina que as esp?cies s?o descobertas, delineadas e descritas. Mam?feros carn?voros s?o animais tidos como bem conhecidos; contudo, alguns t?xons desse grupo ainda n?o foram descritos e tantos outros receberam pouca aten??o biogeogr?fica e taxon?mica, impedindo estimativas corretas de riqueza, abund?ncia e status de conserva??o. O g?nero Galictis (Mustelidae, Carnivora) ? um exemplo de t?xon ainda pouco estudado na regi?o Neotropical, justamente uma das mais ricas e mais amea?adas regi?es do mundo. Informa??es b?sicas sobre esses mustel?deos, tais como n?mero exato de esp?cies, delimita??o entre elas, diagnose e distribui??o geogr?fica das mesmas, n?o foram ainda investigadas com rigor, o que acarreta incertezas sobre alguns t?picos e compromete a sua taxonomia. Para realizar uma revis?o taxon?mica ampla de Galictis, foram realizadas an?lises morfol?gicas e moleculares com base em registros provenientes de toda a distribui??o geogr?fica do g?nero. Para a primeira t?cnica, foram analisados cr?nios e peles tombados em 22 institui??es cient?ficas, e os testes morfol?gicos assim como a visualiza??o das peles evidenciaram a presen?a de dois conjuntos de esp?cimes de Galictis, representando as duas esp?cies usualmente reconhecidas, G. cuja e G. vittata. An?lises filogen?ticas com base em segmentos mitocondriais e nucleares corroboraram os resultados morfol?gicos, com a presen?a de dois clados bem apoiados que correspondem tamb?m a G. cuja e G. vittata. Nenhum outro agrupamento morfol?gico ou mesmo ind?cios de um terceiro clado no g?nero foi identificado. Esses resultados confirmam a exist?ncia de duas esp?cies e possibilitam o reconhecimento de caracteres morfol?gicos diagn?sticos para elas. Esses caracteres s?o de utilidade para a identifica??o de esp?cimes de museu e podem tamb?m auxiliar a identifica??o de indiv?duos na natureza. Com o correto delineamento das esp?cies, foi poss?vel definir a distribui??o geogr?fica das mesmas e resolver algumas quest?es atualmente controversas, como a defini??o da ocorr?ncia exclusiva de G. cuja na regi?o Nordeste do Brasil e o limite austral de G. vittata para a Bacia Amaz?nia. Por fim, a partir da defini??o confi?vel e robusta das esp?cies, obtida na primeira etapa desta tese, foi poss?vel realizar um estudo intra-espec?fico mais detalhado com foco em G. cuja, englobando an?lises filogeogr?ficas de marcadores moleculares, bem como varia??o morfol?gica ao longo de sua distribui??o. Essa esp?cie se caracteriza de forma geral por consider?vel variabilidade gen?tica e morfol?gica, em que se observam alguns padr?es geogr?ficos interessantes. Entre estes, pode-se destacar a diferencia??o morfol?gica de popula??es do Sul do Chile e Argentina, bem como, uma estrutura??o gen?tica significativa entre tr?s grandes dom?nios geogr?ficos, e evid?ncia de uma expans?o demogr?fica relativamente recente no sudeste brasileiro. Todos esses resultados embasam o conhecimento sobre o g?nero e propiciam ferramentas para estudos futuros que visem a entender a hist?ria evolutiva de Galictis na regi?o Neotropical.

A sobre-exploração humana tem causado uma degradação generalizada e perturbação dos ecossistemas de água doce, os mais ameaçados do mundo. A bacia hidrográfica do Rio dos Sinos, no estado do Rio Grande do Sul, é considerada umas mais poluídas do Brasil. Seus cursos d’água estão sob diferentes graus de influência antrópica, bem como seus organismos dependentes. A lontra Neotropical é um mustelídeo semiaquático ameaçado por toda a sua área de distribuição continental onde há conhecimento. Embora a lontra seja um importante organismo para avaliar a qualidade ambiental por apresentar alguma tolerância a ambientes antropizados, pouco se sabe sobre seu status de conservação. Sua biologia, ecologia, comportamento e aspectos populacionais ainda são pouco conhecidos. Considerando isso, uma síntese de aspectos ecológicos e biológicos de Lontra longicaudis foi realizada através de extensa revisão bibliográfica. Além disso, avaliada a influência da qualidade da água em regiões com diferentes níveis de influência antrópica, bem como a estrutura da vegetação nas margens de rios, a sazonalidade e a velocidade da correnteza nos rios sobre a ocorrência de L. longicaudis. O componente experimental deste projeto foi realizado com base em amostragens mensais de material biológico não invasivo em 16 diferentes regiões da bacia do Rio dos Sinos no Rio Grande do Sul, ao longo de 2015. Ademais, foram realizadas entrevistas com moradores como método complementar para confirmar a presença da espécie. Nove novas áreas de registro de L. longicaudis foram confirmadas para o estado. A ocorrência de lontra foi modelada através de modelos lineares generalizados. Áreas com água de melhor qualidade (classes 2 e 3) apresentaram significativamente mais registros que áreas com água de qualidade inferior (classe 4). Adicionalmente, quer a correnteza, quer a época do ano também se mostraram relevantes para explicar os padrões de ocorrência da espécie. Em conclusão, a lontra Neotropical, assim como outros mamíferos semi-aquáticos poderão ser utilizados como bioindicadores de qualidade ambiental, especialmente em ambientes antropizados. No futuro, outras variáveis tais como a fisionomia e estágio de sucessão ecológica da vegetação das margens deverão ser considerados para explicar os padrões de ocorrência de lontra, no sentido de contribuir, de forma mais suportada, para a definição de medidas para a sua conservação. / Human overexploitation has caused the generalized degradation and disturbance of freshwater ecosystems, the most threatened in the world. The Sinos river basin in Rio Grande do Sul state is considered one of the most polluted in Brazil. Watercourses in this basin are under different degrees of anthropogenic influence, as well as all the organisms that depend on that water. The Neotropical otter is a semiaquatic mustelid threatened across its entire distribution area. While the otter is an important organism to evaluate environmental quality due to its intermediate tolerance to modified environments, little is known about its conservation status. Neotropical otter biology, ecology, behaviour and population aspects are still scarcely known. With this is mind, a synthesis of the ecological and biological aspects of Lontra longicaudis was done by means of literature revision. The effect of water quality in regions with distinct levels of anthropogenic influence, as well as vegetation structure, seasonality and flow velocity on otter occurrence was evaluated. The experimental component of this project was made based on monthly samplings of non-invasive biological material in 16 different regions of the Sinos river basin in Rio Grande do Sul in 2015. Moreover, interviews with local residents were made as a complementary method to confirm the species presence. Nine new areas of occurrence were detected in the state. Otter occurrence was modelled through generalized linear models. Areas with water of better quality (classes 2 and 3) presented significantly higher records than areas with water of lower quality (class 4). Additionally, both flow and season were also relevant in explaining the patterns of occurrence of the species. In conclusion, the Neotropical otter, as well as other semiaquatic mammals may be used as bioindicators of environmental quality, especially in human-altered environments. In the future, other parameters such as the physiognomy and the stage of ecological succession of the vegetation should be taken into consideration to explain patterns of otter occurrence, as a means to contribute, in a more sustained way, to the definition of conservation measures for the species.

Licentiatavhandling (sammanfattning) Uppsala : Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet. / Härtill 3 uppsatser.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-02T19:32:13Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 6521.pdf: 3822006 bytes, checksum: 8dd5924ddfcce5bf41cf7ae19c8db5d8 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-11-18 / Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos / The neotropical otter (Lontra longicaudis) is one of the 13 species of otter and has one of the widest geographic distribution, occurring from the north of Mexico until northern Argentina. Along its distribution the species, inhabits a variety of habitats facing different environmental quality levels. The availability of food and places to build burrows are the key factors to its occurrence. The species is defined as top predator and because its generalist habits, it has been suggested as a community structure species. Although the species tend to be generalist it shows a preferences for fishes and crustaceans in its diet. Its IUCN classification (data deficient) is based mainly on studies related to its diet and habitat use. Nevertheless, information about the species still have too much gaps in relation to populations studies, current distribution and environment requirements. This paper aims to review the current status and species information with the purpose of propose future conservation actions for the species, and therefore propose further information to enable a most appropriate classification on the conservation status of the neotropical otter. / A Lontra longicaudis é uma das 13 espécies de lontra com maior distribuição geográfica, ocorrendo desde o norte do México até o norte da Argentina. Em todo seu território, está presente em diversos tipos de ambientes e com variados níveis de qualidade ambiental. A oferta de alimentos e disponibilidade de locais propícios para criação de tocas são os fatores chave para a sua ocorrência. Considerada topo de cadeia, é um animal generalista, mas que apresenta uma preferência em sua dieta por peixes e crustáceos. Classificada pela IUCN como Dados Deficientes, possuindo vários trabalhos relacionados à dieta e utilização de ambiente. Porém, ainda há grandes lacunas no que diz respeito a estudos populacionais, distribuição atual e suas exigências ambientais. Este trabalho teve como objetivo fazer uma revisão do atual status e informações a respeito da espécie e propor quais atitudes devem ser tomadas para conservação da lontra, tal como, trabalhos de educação ambiental, monitoramento das unidades de conservação, maior rigidez com o cumprimento das leis ambientais e quais áreas necessitam de maiores informações para possibilitar uma classificação sobre o status de conservação mais adequada da lontra.