À la fois semi-conducteur et ferromagnétique, le Ga1-xMnxAs offre des potentialités intéressantes pour l'électronique de spin. Cette double propriété est due à l'interaction d'échange entre les spins localisés des atomes de manganèse Mn et les spins des porteurs de charge. Le travail présenté dans cette thèse est centré sur le contrôle de l'aimantation de ces structures magnétiques. Une étude expérimentale, comparative et détaillée, de l'anisotropie magnétique a été menée sur deux séries d'échantillons. Par ailleurs, une méthode d'analyse basée sur l'étude de la densité d'énergie libre magnétocristalline des systèmes observés a été développée en vue de confronter les résultats aux prédictions théoriques. Les mesures d'effet Hall et d'aimantation par SQUID sur des monocouches à aimantation planaire ont permis de mettre en évidence deux types d'anisotropie : une anisotropie cubique pour T < TC/2 avec un retournement d'aimantation par sauts de 90°, et une anisotropie uniaxiale pour des températures TC/2 < T < TC avec un renversement d'aimantation à 180°. La technique du recuit post-croissance réduit cependant l'anisotropie cubique au profit de l'anisotropie uniaxiale. Les structures à aimantation perpendiculaire présentent, quant à elles, un retournement d'aimantation à 180° pour toutes les températures T < TC. Par conséquent, dans ces dispositifs, l'anisotropie magnétique est fortement uniaxiale. En dernier lieu, cette étude porte sur la dynamique des domaines magnétiques et la détermination des vitesses de propagation de parois de domaines, induites par un champ magnétique. Les résultats révèlent une anisotropie de propagation de parois suivant les axes cristallographiques <110> avec deux régimes de vitesses distincts, dont l'un est fortement contrôlé par des défauts de structure. / At the same time semiconductor and ferromagnetic, the Ga1-xMnxAs offers interesting potentialities for spintronic. This double property is due to the exchange interaction between localized spin of Mn atoms and the spin charge carrier. The work presented in this thesis is centred on the magnetization control of these magnetic structures. A comparative and detailed experimental study of the magnetic anisotropy is carried out on two series of samples. An analysis method based on the free energy density study of the observed systems was also been developed to confront the results with theoretical predictions. The Hall effect and SQUID measurements on the structures with planar magnetization allowed us to bring to light two types of anisotropy: a cubic anisotropy for T < TC / 2 with a magnetization reversal by jumps of 90 ° and an uniaxial anisotropy for temperatures TC / 2 < T < TC with a reversal of magnetization in 180°. The structure with perpendicular magnetization present a magnetization switch at 180° for all temperatures T < TC. Consequently in these compounds, the magnetic anisotropy is strongly uniaxiale. Lastly this study deals the magnetic domains structures and the determination of domain wall propagation velocity. The results reveal an anisotropic domain wall propagation along crystallographic axes <110> with two distinct velocity regimes, including one strongly controlled by structural defects.

In this thesis, two selected topics in magnetism are studied using theoretical modelling and computational methods. The first of these is the magnetocrystalline anisotropy energy (MAE) of transition metal based magnets. In particular, ways of finding 3d transition metal based materials with large MAE are considered. This is motivated by the need for new permanent magnet materials, not containing rare-earth elements, but is also of interest for other technological applications, where the MAE is a key quantity. The mechanisms of the MAE in the relevant materials are reviewed and approaches to increasing this quantity are discussed. Computational methods, largely based on density functional theory (DFT), are applied to guide the search for relevant materials. The computational work suggests that the MAE of Fe1-xCox alloys can be significantly enhanced by introducing a tetragonality with interstitial B or C impurities. This is also experimentally corroborated. Alloying is considered as a method of tuning the electronic structure around the Fermi energy and thus also the MAE, for example in the tetragonal compound (Fe1-xCox)2B. Additionally, it is shown that small amounts (2.5-5 at.%) of various 5d dopants on the Fe/Co-site can enhance the MAE of this material with as much as 70%. The magnetic properties of several technologically interesting, chemically ordered, L10 structured binary compounds, tetragonal Fe5Si1-xPxB2 and Hexagonal Laves phase Fe2Ta1-xWx are also investigated. The second topic studied is that of magnetic effects on the elastic scattering of fast electrons, in the context of transmission electron microscopy (TEM). A multislice solution is implemented for a paraxial version of the Pauli equation. Simulations require the magnetic fields in the sample as input. A realistic description of magnetism in a solid, for this purpose, is derived in a scheme starting from a DFT calculation of the spin density or density matrix. Calculations are performed for electron vortex beams passing through magnetic solids and a magnetic signal, defined as a difference in intensity for opposite orbital angular momentum beams, integrated over a disk in the diffraction plane, is observed. For nanometer sized electron vortex beams carrying orbital angular momentum of a few tens of ħ, a relative magnetic signal of order 10-3 is found. This is considered realistic to be observed in experiments. In addition to electron vortex beams, spin polarised and phase aberrated electron beams are considered and also for these a magnetic signal, albeit weaker than that of the vortex beams, can be obtained. / <p>Felaktigt ISBN i den tryckta versionen: 9789155497149</p><p></p>

Many physical properties, for example structural or magnetic, of a material are directly dependent on elemental composition. Tailoring of properties through highly accurate composition control is possible in thin films. This work exemplifies such tailoring. A short review is given of the current status for research in the area of permanent magnets, focusing on rare earth element free alternatives, where FeNi in the L10 phase is a possible candidate. Epitaxial FeNi L10 thin films were successfully synthesized by magnetron sputtering deposition of monoatomic layers of Fe and Ni on HF-etched Si(001) substrates with Cu or Cu100-xNix/Cu buffers. The in-plane lattice parameter aCuNi of the Cu100-xNix buffer layer was tuned by the Ni content. Through matching of aFeNi to aCuNi, the strain state (c/a)FeNi was controlled, where c is the out-of-plane lattice parameter. The 001 reflection indicative of chemical order, as measured by resonant x-ray diffraction, was in most cases split in two peaks due to a composition modulation of Fe and Ni. This chemical disorder contributed to that the uniaxial magnetocrystalline anisotropy energy, KU≈0.35 MJ/m3, was smaller than predicted. In later experiments the composition modulation could partly be compensated for. Remaining discrepancies with respect to predicted KU values were attributed to additional disorder induced by surface roughness of the buffer layer. The interface sharpness between Fe and Ni was explored by producing epitaxial symmetric multilayers with individual layer thicknesses n = 4-48 monolayers (ML). For n ≤ 8 ML the films had pure fcc structure, with antiferromagnetic Fe layers. For n ≥ 8 ML the Fe layers relaxed to bcc structure. A combinatorial sputter chamber, which has the capability to deposit samples with composition and thickness gradients, was assembled. A model for simulation of composition and thickness across large substrates, for the conditions in this chamber, is presented. The model is verified by comparison to experimental data. Some challenges inherent in combinatorial sputtering are discussed, and two experimental studies employing the technique are presented as examples. These investigated magnetic and structural properties of Tb-Co films, with 7-95 at.% Tb, and of amorphous and crystalline ternary gradient Co-Fe-Zr films, respectively.

Spintronics is a new branch of electronics, which uses not only the charge of electron but also its spin for transfer and processing of information. For re- al applications it is necessary to understand, how the magnetic state of matter changes not only in time but also in space. This diploma thesis is therefore de- voted to the imaging of magnetic domains in ferromagnetic semiconductors by purely optical methods, which are based on the usage of the magneto-optical ef- fects. In first part of the thesis we concentrated on the optimalization of existing polarizing microscope, whose function is based solely on the polar Kerr effect. After the optimalization we try to use this setup to observe magnetic domains in ferromagnetic semiconductor GaMnAs by the means of the magnetic linear dichroism. 1

Technology where a solitary dopant acts as the active component of an opto-electronic device is an emerging  field known as solotronics, and bears the promise to revolutionize the way in which information is stored, processed and transmitted. Magnetic doped semiconductors and in particular (Ga, Mn)As, the archetype of dilute magnetic semiconductors, and topological insulators (TIs), a new phase of quantum matter with unconventional characteristics, are two classes of quantum materials that have the potential to advance spin-electronics technology. The quest to understand and control, at the atomic level, how a few magnetic atoms precisely positioned in a complex environment respond to external stimuli, is the red thread that connects these two quantum materials in the research presented here. The goal of the thesis is in part to elucidate the properties of transition metal (TM) impurities near the surface of GaAs semiconductors with focus on their response to local magnetic and electric fields, as well as to investigate the real-time dynamics of their localized spins. Our theoretical analysis, based on density functional theory (DFT) and using tight-binding (TB) models, addresses the mid-gap electronic structure, the local density of states (LDOS) and the magnetic anisotropy energy of individual Mn and Fe impurities near the (110) surface of GaAs. We investigate the effect of a magnetic field on the Mn acceptor LDOS measured in cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy, and provide an explanation of why the experimental LDOS images depend weakly on the field direction despite the strongly anisotropic nature of the Mn acceptor wavefunction. We also investigate the effects of a local electrostatic field generated by nearby charged As vacancies, on individual and pairs of ferromagnetically coupled magnetic dopants near the surface of GaAs, providing a means to control electrically the exchange interaction of Mn pairs. Finally, using the mixed quantum-classical scheme for spin dynamics, we calculate explicitly the time evolution of the Mn spin and its bound acceptor, and analyze the dynamic interaction between pairs of ferromagnetically coupled magnetic impurities in a nanoscaled semiconductor. The second part of the thesis deals with the theoretical investigation of a single substitutional Mn impurity and its associated acceptor state on the (111) surface of Bi2Se3 TI, using an approach that combines DFT and TB calculations. Our analysis clarifies the crucial role played by the spatial overlap and the quasi-resonant coupling between the Mn-acceptor and the topological surface states inside the Bi2Se3 band gap, in the opening of a gap at the Dirac point. Strong electronic correlations are also found to contribute significantly to the mechanism leading to the gap, since they control the hybridization between the p orbitals of nearest-neighbor Se atoms and the acceptor spin-polarization. Our results explain the effects of inversion-symmetry and time-reversal symmetry breaking on the electronic states in the vicinity of the Dirac point, and contribute to clarifying the origin of surface-ferromagnetism in TIs. The promising potential of magnetic-doped TIs accentuates the importance of our contribution to the understanding of the interplay between magnetic order and topological protected surface states.

Cette étude propose l'idée des aimants dits de ferrite tétragonale en rendant la symétrie cristalline des ferrites de spinelle cubique afin d'améliorer l'anisotropie magnétique (et donc, d'améliorer la coercivité). Pour concrétiser cette idée, nous avons synthétisé des particules (Cu, Co) -ferrite à distorsion tétragonale et caractérisé systématiquement les propriétés magnétiques en conséquence avec leurs distorsions de réseau. Les facteurs intrinsèques et extrinsèques contribuant à la coercivité ont été étudiés. Pour élucider l'anisotropie magnétique, nous avons démontré un modèle de couplage physique de l'effet Jahn-Teller (JT) et de l'effet magnétoélastique (ME) au sein de la théorie phénoménologique. Ensuite, nous avons effectué une analyse de coercivité dans deux modèles généraux de coercivité afin de clarifier les paramètres de la microstructure contribuant au mécanisme d'inversion de la magnétisation. À partir de l'analyse du modèle magnétoélastique, nous avons démontré l'expression linéaire de l'anisotropie magnétique en utilisant le paramètre tétragonal obtenu à partir de la distorsion JT. Les valeurs du coefficient magnétoélastique pour Cu (B1Cu = 2 MJ / m3) et Co (B1Co = 40 MJ / m3) déduites de la courbe expérimentale étaient acceptables avec la valeur calculée pour le ferrite de cuivre en vrac (B1Cu en vrac = 4 MJ / m3) et le cobalt. ferrite (masse B1Co = 55 MJ / m3). Les résultats suggèrent que l’anisotropie magnétique peut être attribuée au couplage de la distorsion JT avec l’effet magnétoélastique de Co. Au lieu d’une augmentation indéfinie avec x, l’anisotropie magnétique Ku tend à atteindre une valeur de saturation en raison de la concurrence entre les effet magnétoélastique de Co et le JT de Cu. Entre le x tétragonal x = 0,1 et le x cubique = 0,2, les valeurs de Ku constantes d'anisotropie magnétique intrinsèque ne varient pas de manière aussi significative que la différence entre les champs de coercivité et d'anisotropie. La réduction des champs d'anisotropie supérieurs à x = 0,1 peut alors être attribuée à l'augmentation de l'aimantation spontanée. L'analyse de la coercivité au sein du modèle micromagnétique a révélé une contribution importante à la coercivité de la microstructure et de l'effet démagnétisant local. Le paramètre de microstructure αMM = 0,25 obtenu était une valeur classique de l'analyse micromagnétique, suggérant le départ du champ d'anisotropie avec ce facteur de réduction. Les facteurs démagnétisants locaux effectifs NeffMM d’environ 1,4 obtenus étaient plutôt importants, ce qui suggère un effet démagnétisant significatif. Dans l'analyse du modèle global (GM), les valeurs de NeffGM obtenues étaient were 0,38 pour l'échantillon x = 0,1. La valeur négative suggère la présence d'une interaction d'échange agissant efficacement en opposition à l'interaction dipolaire. En deçà de 100 K, une différence dans le modèle suggère l’idée d’un réchauffement local consécutif à l’activation thermique due au changement d’énergie Zeeman et à une dissipation de chaleur inefficace. Cet événement peut avoir conduit à la réduction du champ coercitif à une température suffisamment basse dans l'échantillon x = 0.1 en supposant que les grains sont fortement couplés en échange. / This study proposes the idea of the so-called tetragonal ferrite magnets by rendering the crystal symmetry of the cubic spinel ferrites to enhance the magnetic anisotropy (and hence, enhance the coercivity). To realize this idea, we synthesized tetragonally distorted (Cu,Co)-ferrite particles and systematically characterized the magnetic properties accordingly with their lattice distortions. The intrinsic and extrinsic factors contributing to coercivity were investigated. To elucidate the magnetic anisotropy, we demonstrated a physical coupling model of the Jahn-Teller (JT) effect and the magnetoelastic (ME) effect within the phenomenological theory. Then, we performed coercivity analysis within two general models of coercivity to clarify the microstructure parameters contributing to the magnetization reversal mechanism. From the magnetoelastic model analysis, we demonstrated the linear expression of the magnetic anisotropy using the tetragonal parameter obtained from the JT distortion. The magnetoelastic coefficient values for Cu (B1Cu = 2 MJ/m3) and Co (B1Co = 40 MJ/m3) deduced from the experimental curve were agreeable with the value calculated for bulk copper ferrite (B1Cu bulk= 4 MJ/m3) and cobalt ferrite (B1Co bulk= 55 MJ/m3). The results suggests that the source of magnetic anisotropy can be attributed to the coupling of the JT distortion with the magnetoelastic effect of Co. Instead of an indefinite increase with x, the magnetic anisotropy Ku tends to reach a saturation value due to the competition between the magnetoelastic effect of Co and the JT effect of Cu. Between the tetragonal x = 0.1 and the cubic x = 0.2 samples, the intrinsic magnetic anisotropy constant Ku values do not vary as significantly compared to the difference in the coercivity and the anisotropy fields. The reduction of anisotropy fields above x = 0.1 then can be attributed to the increase in the spontaneous magnetization.The coercivity analysis within the micromagnetic model revealed significant contribution to the coercivity by the microstructure and the local demagnetizing effect. The microstructure parameter αMM = 0.25 obtained was a classical value in the micromagnetic analysis, suggesting the departure of anisotropy field with this reduction factor. The effective local demagnetizing factor NeffMM of about 1.4 obtained were rather large suggesting a significant demagnetizing effect. Within the global model (GM) analysis, the values of NeffGM obtained were －0.38 for the x = 0.1 sample. The negative value suggests the presence of an exchange interaction acting effectively in opposition to the dipolar interaction. Below 100 K, discrepancy in the GM suggests the idea of a local heating event following the thermal activation due to the change in Zeeman energy and ineffective heat dissipation. This event may have led to the reduction of coercive field at sufficiently low temperature in the x = 0.1 sample assuming the grains are strongly exchange-coupled.

Le but de cette thèse est l'étude des propriétés de jonctions tunnel magnétiques à aimantation perpendiculaire, en utilisant l'anisotropie perpendiculaire présente à l'interface entre un métal magnétique et un oxyde. En théorie, dans le cas des applications mémoires, les jonctions tunnel perpendiculaires devraient nécessiter moins d'énergie (courant) pour l'écriture par courant polarisé en spin. Mais la fabrication de telles structures représente un défi et une tâche difficile puisque les propriétés de transport (TMR) et d'anisotropie imposent des contraintes sur les matériaux utilisées en limitant la fenêtre de travail, notamment en ce qui concerne l'épaisseur des couches magnétiques. Pour atteindre cet objectif nous avons tout d'abord étudié les propriétés de ces structures comme l'anisotropie de l'interface métal magnétique-oxyde, le transport tunnel et le couplage entre les couches magnétiques à travers la barrière isolante. L'amplitude de l'anisotropie d'interface entre un métal magnétique et un oxyde dépend de l'épaisseur des couches magnétiques, de la température de recuit et la concentration de l'oxygène à l'interface. Différentes structures ont été réalisées afin de choisir la structure la mieux adaptée pour les applications mémoires MRAM. Une corrélation entre la TMR et l'anisotropie a été observée permettant de valider l'origine de l'anisotropie perpendiculaire : la formation de liaisons métal magnétique-oxygène. Un couplage antiferromagnétique à été aussi observé entre les couches magnétiques à anisotropie perpendiculaire à travers l'oxyde. Une étude détaillée sur le couplage a été faite en fonction de la température de recuit et de l'épaisseur des couches magnétiques pour mieux comprendre l'origine du couplage et une possible relation avec l'amplitude de l'anisotropie perpendiculaire. Finalement des jonctions perpendiculaires ont été nano-lithographiées et des mesures de commutation d'aimantation par transfert de spin sur des piliers nanométriques ont été réalisées avec de faibles courants critiques. / The aim of this thesis is the study of magnetic tunnel junctions with perpendicularly magnetized electrodes (pMTJ), using perpendicular magnetic anisotropy (PMA) arising from the magnetic metal/oxide interfaces. For magnetic memories applications, it was predicted in theory that perpendicular junctions should need less energy (current) for spin transfer torque (STT) writing applications. However, the engineering of such structures is a real challenge and a difficult task since simultaneous transport (TMR) and PMA properties impose constraints on materials being used and also limit the working window of the device, especially in terms of magnetic layer thickness. In order to reach our goal we first studied different properties of these structures, such as the origin of PMA from the metal/oxide interface, tunnel transport and interlayer exchange coupling phenomena. The PMA at magnetic metal/oxide interface was showed to strongly depend on different parameters like annealing temperature, oxygen concentration, layer thickness etc. Several pMTJ structures were tested in order to choose the best one for MRAM memories applications. A correlation between TMR and PMA was observed and confirms the PMA origin from the magnetic metal-oxygen bond formation at the interface. Furthermore, antiferromagnetic interlayer exchange coupling was observed in our structures in the presence of out of plane anisotropy. A detailed study was made as a function of annealing temperature and layers thickness, in order to understand the origin of this coupling and its possible relationship to the anisotropy strength. Finally the STT-pMTJ concept was validated and low critical currents were observed on submicronic dots prepared by electron beam lithography.

Le développement de nouveaux dispositifs spintroniques à base de semi-conducteurs (SC) nécessite la création d'une population électronique polarisée en spin dans ces matériaux. De ce point de vue, le germanium est un matériau prometteur pour les applications en spintronique à cause de la forte mobilité des porteurs de charge ainsi que de la symétrie d'inversion du cristal diamant à l'origine de temps de vie de spin très longs. Dans ce manuscrit, nous discutons deux approches pour l'injection et la détection électrique de spins dans le germanium. La première approche consiste à utiliser une barrière tunnel et un métal ferromagnétique (FM) comme injecteur de spin. L'insertion d'une barrière tunnel à l'interface FM/SC permet de résoudre le problème fondamental du désaccord de conductivité. Nous avons utilisé deux injecteurs différents : Py/Al2O3 et CoFeB/MgO. Les mesures sont réalisées en géométrie à trois contacts et l'accumulation de spins dans le germanium est démontrée par la mesure de l'effet Hanle. Dans le cas d'une barrière d'Al2O3, les spins injectés s'accumulent sur des états localisés à l'interface oxyde/Ge et cette accumulation est observée jusqu'à 220 K. Dans le cas d'une barrière de MgO, les spins sont réellement injectés dans le canal de Ge et un signal de 20-30 µV est encore observé à température ambiante. Nous discutons dans la deuxième approche l'utilisation du semi-conducteur magnétique (Ge,Mn) comme injecteur de spins dans le Ge. Nous avons tout d'abord étudié les propriétés structurales et magnétiques de films minces de (Ge,Mn) fabriqués par épitaxie par jets moléculaires à basse température. En faisant varier les paramètres de croissance, nous avons pu observer des nanocolonnes de GeMn cristallines ou amorphes, ainsi que des films et des nanoparticules de Ge3Mn5. Nous nous sommes concentrés sur l'anisotropie magnétique de ces nanostructures. Finalement, la croissance de (Ge,Mn) sur GOI a été optimisée en vue de son utilisation comme injecteur de spins dans le germanium et différentes méthodes d'intégration de ce matériau dans les dispositifs de spintronique « tout semi-conducteur » sont discutées. / Creation of spin polarization in non-magnetic semiconductors is one of the prerequisite for creation of spintronics based semiconductor devices. Germanium is interesting for spintronics applications due to its high carrier mobilities and its inversion symmetry that gives long spin lifetimes. In this manuscript, we discuss two approaches for electrical spin injection and detection in Germanium. The first approach is to use a tunnel barrier and a ferromagnetic metal as a spin injector. The tunnel barrier at the interface circumvents the conductivity mismatch problem. Two different spin injectors are used: Py/Al2O3 and CoFeB/MgO. The measurements are performed in three-terminal geometry and the proof of spin accumulation is given by Hanle measurements. In case of Al2O3, the spin accumulation is predicted to be in localized states at the oxide/Ge interface and the spin signal is observed up to 220 K. However in MgO based devices, true injection in Ge channel is predicted and spin signal of 20-30 µV is observed at room temperature. The second approach of using ferromagnetic semiconductor (Ge,Mn) as spin injector is also discussed. The structural and magnetic properties of (Ge,Mn) thin-films grown by low-temperature molecular beam epitaxy (LT-MBE) are studied. Depending on the growth parameters, crystalline/amorphous GeMn nanocolumns and Ge3Mn5 thin films or nanoclusters have been observed. Magnetic anisotropy in these nanostructures is also studied. Finally, the growth of (Ge,Mn) films on GOI substrates is shown and different ways to use (Ge,Mn) as a spin injector in Ge are discussed to achieve all-semiconductor based spintronics devices.

Este trabalho apresenta os avanços no desenvolvimento de um novo método de ensaio não-destrutivo magnético. O método está baseado na técnica do Ruído Magnético de Barkhausen (RMB), particularmente em uma variante denominada Barkhausen Contínuo. O RMB é gerado devido à ação de um campo magnético variável magnetizante que produz mudanças abruptas e irreversíveis na estrutura magnética do material. Essas mudanças são influenciadas pela microestrutura e a distribuição de tensões dentro do mesmo. As medições podem ser usadas para construir uma distribuição bidimensional do RMB ao redor de um ponto fixo, cujo resultado irá refletir o nível de anisotropia magnética, usualmente indicando um eixo de fácil magnetização, parâmetro relevante dado que o comportamento da grande maioria de materiais ferromagnéticos de engenharia é usualmente anisotrópico. As mudanças no eixo de fácil magnetização podem indicar a presença de anomalias mecânicas ou abnormalidades no processo de fabricação e no caso da aplicação de uma tensão externa, podem refletir a magnitude e a direção da mesma. O presente trabalho descreve uma metodologia que faz uso de um campo magnético rotacional para obter sinais RMB relacionados ao angulo de giro, possibilitando a identificação da direção do eixo de fácil magnetização, ultrapassando as capacidades oferecidas pela técnica RMB convencional mediante o fornecimento de informação em tempo real, que permite a obtenção de um conjunto de parâmetros que quantificam a anisotropia magnética de uma amostra. A técnica foi usada para a detecção do eixo de fácil magnetização e o nível de anisotropia magnética em materiais diferentes devida aos efeitos do processo de fabricação. Posteriormente foi demonstrado que a técnica é capaz de monitorar a evolução da tensão uniaxial aplicada, obtendo curvas de calibração, sensíveis ao sentido de aplicação da tensão. Para o caso pouco estudado de amostras submetidas a tensões biaxiais, o uso da técnica do Barkhausen contínuo rotacional fez possível de verificar que as características morfológicas das medições de anisotropia magnética obtidas, guardam relação com a direção das tensões principais. Foi realizada uma avaliação do método aplicado para a medição dinâmica de anisotropia magnética em juntas soldadas, indicando estados de tensão e características microestruturais coerentes com as esperadas. O método tem a possibilidade de ser implementado para medições anisotropia magnética em alta resolução/alta velocidade. / This works presents the current advances on the development of a new method of magnetic non-destructive testing. The method is based on the magnetic Barkhausen noise (MBN), more specifically in one branch known as Continuous Barkhausen. MBN is produced due to the effect of a variable magnetic field, which causes abrupt and irreversible changes to the magnetic structure of the material. These changes are influenced by the microstructure of the material and the stress distributions within. Measurements can be used to construct a bi dimensional MBN distribution around a fixed point, which in turn will be a reflect of its magnetic anisotropy level, usually characterized by an easy axis of magnetization, an important parameter given that more often than not, the behavior of most engineering ferromagnetic materials is anisotropic. Variations of the easy axis could be the indication of mechanical anomalies or abnormalities that appear as a result of the fabrication process. If there is an external stress applied to the sample, it can provide information about its magnitude and direction. The present work describes a methodology which uses a precise rotating magnetic field in order to obtain MBN signals related to a given magnetization angle, making possible the finding of the easy axis, exceeding the limits of conventional MBN measurements by providing real time data which in turn will allow to infer a set of parameters that quantify the magnetic anisotropy of the sample. The proposed technique was successfully used to find both the easy axis and a quantitative level of magnetic anisotropy between different materials, consequence of the fabrication process. Subsequently, it was shown that the technique was able to perform a monitoring of the evolution of both uniaxial and biaxial applied stress, obtaining linear relationships (uniaxial case), sensitive to the direction of loading. In not so much studied case of biaxial loading, the use of the continuous rotational Barkhausen method made possible to observe that the morphologic characteristics of the magnetic anisotropy measurements bear a close resemblance to the direction of the principal stress field. An evaluation of the technique as a tool for the dynamic measurement of magnetic anisotropy on welded joints, indicating stress states and microstructural features coherent with the ones expected in this scenario. The method has the possibility of being implemented as a technique for high speed/high resolution measurements of magnetic anisotropy.

Un des dilemmes au quel doit faire face la technologie MRAM est la réduction de la consommation énergétique et l’amélioration des vitesses d’accès aux données sans compromettre la rétention des données. Une des solutions possibles passe par les jonctions tunnel magnétiques à double barrière(JTMDB) dont l’amplitude du couple de transfert de spin de la couche de stockage peut être réglée par le choix de la configuration magnétique des électrodes. Cela permet ainsi des modes d’opération lecture/écriture plus fiables pour les MRAM. Malgré la réduction de moitié du courant de commutation, une étude précédente sur les JTMDB avec aimantation dans le plan signale des commutations indésirables en mode lecture liées au couple de transfert de spin perpendiculaire. Dans cette thèse, nous étudions plus en détail l’interaction complexe entre les couples de transfert de spin planaire et perpendiculaire dans ces structures à double barrière. Les mesures effectuées en utilisant courant DC ou des impulsions en tension de courte durée dans des JTMDB avec des barrières symétriques et asymétriques ont montré la présence du couple de transfert de spin perpendiculaire en mode lecture et en mode écriture. De plus, dans les JTMDB avec barrières symétriques en mode lecture, nous démontrons la commutation pure déclenchée par le couple de transfert de spin perpendiculaire qui est proportionnel à la tension quadratique et ajusté par le préfacteur. En outre, ce couple de transfert de spin favorise l’alignement antiparallèle entre les aimantations de la couche de stockage et les deux couches de référence. Les résultats obtenus expérimentalement sont en accord avec des simulations macrospin effectuée avec un choix adéquat des préfacteurs des couples de transfert de spin planaire et perpendiculaire. Afin de supprimer l’influence du couple de transfert de spin perpendiculaire, réduire encore plus le courant d’écriture et permettre la miniaturisation des JTM, nous avons développé et fabriqué des JTMDB avec anisotropie perpendiculaire (p-JTMDB). Des nouvelles multicouches sans couche de croissance avec une anisotropie magnétique perpendiculaire amélioré ont été conçues et introduites dans p-JTMDB fonctionnelles comme référence du haut. Les p-JTMDB optimisées ont été fabriquées en nanopiliers de diamètre inférieur à 300 nm et le couple de transfert de spin étudié expérimentalement en mode lecture et écriture. L’utilisation du W au lieu de Ta comme couche intercalaire dans la couche de stockage FeCoB/couche intercalaire/FeCoB a montré une amélioration de l’efficacité du couple de transfert de spin d’un facteur 3. En mode écriture, les p-JTMDB ont aussi démontré un considérable renforcement de l’efficacité du couple de transfert de spin par comparaison aux p-JTM à simple barrière. En mode lecture, la commutation est empêchée au centre de la région bistable mais la stabilité thermique de l’état magnétique se dégrade aux tensions élevées. Parmi plusieurs explications proposées pour ce phénomène, la réduction de la aimantation à saturation et de l’anisotropie effective avec l’augmentation de la température par effet Joule semble la plus probable selon des simulations macrospin. / One of the dilemmas faced by the present STT-MRAM technology is the reduction of the power consumption and increase of data access speed without jeopardizing the data retention. A possible solution lies on the double barrier magnetic tunnel junction (DBMTJ) where the amplitude of the spin transfer torque (STT) on the storage layer can be tuned through a proper magnetic configuration of the outer electrodes. Thus providing more reliable read/write operation modes for MRAM. Despite the reduction in half of the switching current, previous studies on DBMTJs with in-plane magnetization report undesired switchings in read mode associated with field-like torque. In this thesis, we further investigate the complex interplay between damping-like and field-like torques in these double barrierstructures. Measurements using DC current and short voltage pulses in DBMTJ with symmetric and asymmetric barriers have revealed a strong presence of the field-like torque both in write and read modes. Moreover, in DBMTJs with symmetric barriers set in read mode, we demonstrate pure field-like torque switching which is proportional to a quadratic voltage and adjusted by a b2 prefactor. Furthermore, this torque favors a antiparallel alignment between the storage layer magnetization and the two references’ magnetizations. The results obtained experimentally were in agreement with macrospin simulation performed with a proper tuning of the damping-like and field-like torque prefactors. In order to suppress the field-like torque and aiming for a further reduction of the writing currents and enhancedscalability of MTJs, we developed and realized DBMTJs with perpendicular anisotropy (p-DBMTJs). Novel seedless multilayers with improved perpendicular magnetic anisotropy to be used as top reference were designed and implemented in functional p-DBMTJs. The optimized p-DBMTJs were patterned into sub-300nm nanopillars and the spin transfer torque studied experimentally in write and read modes.The use of W instead of Ta as a spacer in the FeCoB/spacer/FeCoB composite storage layer showed a 3x improvement of STT efficiency. In write mode, p-DBMTJs have also demonstrated a considerable enhancement of STT efficiency when compared to single barrier p-MTJs. In read mode, switching has been prevented at the center of the bistable region but its thermal stability degraded with high voltage. Among several proposed explanations of this phenomenon, the reduction of the saturation magnetization and effective anisotropy with increasing temperature has been supported by macrospin simulations as the most probable one.