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Microsystems are a broad category of engineered technologies in the micro and nano scale that have a diverse range of applications. They are emerging as a powerful tool in the field of biomedical research, drug discovery, as well as clinical diagnostics and prognostics, especially with regards to cancer. One of the major challenges in precision and personalized medicine in cancer lies in the technical difficulties of ex-vivo cell culture and propagation of the limited number of primary cells derived from patients. Therefore, our aims are to 1. Develop a biologically relevant platform for culturing cancer cells and characterize how it influences the cell growth and phenotype compared to conventional 2-dimensional(2D) cell culturing techniques, 2. Isolate secondary metabolites from endophytic fungi and screen them on the platform for potential anticancer properties in a preliminary drug discovery pipeline, 3. Design and develop biosensors for quantifying cell responses in real-time within these systems. Several biomaterial scaffolds with microscale architectures have been utilized for engineering the tumor extracellular matrix, but very few studies have thoroughly characterized the phenotypic changes in their cell models, which is critical for translational applications of biomaterial systems. The overall objective of these studies is to engineer a biomimetic platform for the culture of breast cancer cells in vitro and to quantify and profile their phenotypic changes. In order to do this, we first evaluated a blank-slate matrix consisting of thiolated collagen, hyaluronic acid and heparin, cross-linked chemically via Michael addition reaction using diacrylate functionalized poly (ethylene glycol). The hydrogel network was used with triple-negative breast cancer cells and showed significant changes in characteristics, with cells self-assembling to form a 3D spheroid morphology, with higher viability, and exhibiting significantly lower cell death upon chemotherapy treatment, as well as had a decrease in proliferation. Furthemore, the transcriptomic changes quantified using RNA-Seq and Next-Gen Sequencing showed the dramatic changes in some of the commonly targeted pathways in cancer therapy. Furthermore, we were able to show the importance of our biomimetic platform in the process of drug discovery using fungal endophytes and their secondary metabolites as the source for potential anticancer molecules. Additionally, we developed gold nanoparticle and antibody-based (ICAM1 and CD11b) sensors to quantify cell responses spatiotemporally on our platform. We were able to show quenching of the green fluorescent fluorophores due to the Förster Resonance Energy Transfer mechanism between the fluorophore and the gold nanometal surface. We also observed antigen-dependent recovery of fluorescence and inhibition of energy transfer upon the antibody binding to the cell-surface receptors. Future efforts are directed towards incorporating the hydrogel system with antigen-dependent sensors in a conceptually-designed microfluidic platform to spatiotemporally quantify the expression of surface proteins in various cells of the tumor stroma. This includes the migration,infiltration, and polarization of specific immune cells. This approach will provide further insight into the heterogeneity of cells at the single-cell resolution in defined spaces within the 3D microfluidic platform. / Doctor of Philosophy / Microsystems are a broad category of engineered technologies in the micro and nano scale that have a diverse range of applications. They are emerging as a powerful tool in the field of biomedical research, drug discovery, as well as clinical diagnostics and prognostics, especially with regards to cancer. However, a major challenge in being able to offer personalized medicine to cancer patients comes from the difficulty of growing cells from the patient's tumor biopsy in a laboratory for further screening and analysis. There are also limited resources available for real-time expression of proteins on cell-surfaces, that could be potential biomarkers and targets for treatment. Various natural and synthetic polymers are biocompatible and have been used widely in engineering the tumor extracellular matrix. However, the effect of hydrogels derived from these polymers on the specific tumor cells are not always well characterized. Our studies explore the influence of a biohybrid hydrogel on breast cancer cells and our results show that the microscale architecture of the hydrogel platform works as a suitable scaffold for recapitulating the 3-dimensional(3D) breast tumor microenvironment, and can also be employed in the drug discovery process. Additionally, we developed a nano-scale biosensor to enable the quantification of specific cell-surface proteins in real-time. Ongoing and future efforts are focused on designing and fabricating a microfluidic device with precise control over the design of space and special chambers for cell culture. These will be used for studying interactions of various cells in the tumor microenvironment that influence cancer progression. Integrating these micro-scale systems, including sensors will allow researchers to quantify cell behavior in response to the variable factors they are exposed to, as well as provide insight to answer fundamental questions about cancer biology that are limited by the conventional 2D cell culture systems.

Flera av de senaste forskningsstudierna har visat att tumörmikromiljö är mycket viktigare än man hittills trott. Ett av de viktigaste elementen i tumörmikromiljön är immunceller som producerar olika kemokiner samt uttrycker specifika receptorer. Kemokiner kan både aktivera och hämma immunförsvaret. Syftet med denna pilotstudie var att undersöka uttryck av kemokinreceptor CCR5 hos patienter med koloncancer (n=41) och utvärdera prognostisk betydelse genom att undersöka uttrycksskillnader mellan tumör och parad tumörfri vävnad med hjälp av immunhistokemisk detektionsmetod. Syftet var även att identifiera sambandet med kön, ålder, tumörstadier (TNM) och lokalisation av primär tumör. Resultaten visade signifikanta skillnader i uttryck av CCR5 mellan koloncancer och parad tumörfri kolonvävnad (p<0,001). Nivån av CCR5 uttryck var 79% högre i tumörvävnad jämfört med parad tumörfri vävnad. Inga statistiskt signifikanta skillnader eller korrelationer mellan CCR5 uttryck och tumörstadier, kön, ålder eller tumörlokalisation på patienterna hittades. Däremot resultaten tyder på att det föreligger samband mellan patienternas ålder och tumörlokalisation. Sammanfattningsvis bekräftar studieresultaten att CCR5 kan vara involverad i patogenesen av koloncancer. / The latest research has shown that the cancer microenvironment is much more important than previously thought. One of the most important elements in it are immune cells that produce various chemokines and express specific receptors. Chemokines can both activate and inhibit the immune system. The aim of this pilot study was to investigate the expression of chemokine receptor CCR5 in patients with colon cancer (n=41) and evaluate prognostic significance by identifying expressional differences between tumor and paired tumor-free tissue using immunohistochemical method. The aim was also to identify the relationship with the clinical parameters: gender, age, tumor stages (TNM) and location of primary tumor. Results showed significant differences in CCR5 expression between colon cancer and paired tumor-free colon tissue (p<0,001). The level of CCR5 expression was 79% higher in tumor tissue compared to paired tumor-free tissue. No statistically significant differences or correlations between CCR5 expression and tumor stages, gender, age, or tumor location were found. However, the results indicate that there is a relationship between the patients' age and tumor localization. In summary, the results of the study confirm that CCR5 may be involved in the pathogenesis of colon cancer.

Résumé: Le muscle squelettique possède une excellente capacité à se regénérer notamment grâce à ses cellules progénitrices stromales (mrSC) et myogéniques (CPM). À la suite de certains traumas et pour des raisons encore méconnues, la qualité de sa régénération est compromise ce qui mène à l’apparition de structures aberrantes tel l’os mature, aussi appelée ossification hétérotopique (OH) post-traumatique. Notre laboratoire a montré dans un modèle murin que les mrSC sont pleinement impliquées dans cette pathologie. De plus, un facteur fortement ostéoinducteur, BMP9, ne cause l’OH que si, et seulement si, le muscle est endommagé. Ce modèle d’étude est unique puisqu’il présente les particularités physiopathologiques de l’OH post-traumatique, un dommage du muscle étant essentiel à la formation d’os. De plus, ce modèle a permis de mettre en évidence le rôle prédominant du microenvironnement des cellules progénitrices dans le développement de cette pathologie. Nous avons donc émis l’HYPOTHÈSE selon laquelle le microenvironnement du muscle endommagé contient des facteurs qui peuvent influencer le phénotype de ses cellules progénitrices stromales et myogéniques favorisant ainsi le développement de l’OH. Nos résultats montrent que l’état hypoxique d’un muscle sévèrement endommagé augmente la prolifération et la différenciation ostéogénique des mrSC. De plus, l’hypoxie induit spécifiquement l’expression de BMP9 par les mrSC. L’impact de BMP9 a également été évalué sur la différenciation des CPM. Les résultats montrent qu’à des concentrations physiologiques, BMP9 inhibe le potentiel myogénique des CPM en faveur d’une différenciation ostéogénique, et cela tant dans la lignée myoblastique murine C2C12 que chez les CPM primaires humaines. En résumé, le muscle endommagé développant l’OH possède un microenvironement spécifique responsable du débalancement de la capacité régénérative de ses progéniteurs. Nos travaux montrent que ce microenvironnement cause un retard de la myogenèse et une ostéogenèse où participeront non seulement les mrSC mais également les CPM. L’identification et la compréhension des mécanismes régulant ces facteurs s’avèrent clé pour offrir aux cliniciens des outils de diagnostic mais également des alternatives ou des approches complémentaires aux traitements prophylaxiques actuels. / Abstract: Skeletal muscle has an extraordinary ability to regenerate due to its resident stromal cells (mrSCs) and myogenic progenitor cells (MPCs). Following certain traumas, the quality of the regeneration of skeletal muscle can be compromised for unknown reasons, leading to the appearance of aberrant structures such as mature bone, a process called posttraumatic heterotopic ossification (HO). Our laboratory developed a mouse model to show that mrSCs are fully involved in this pathology. We also showed that BMP9, a highly osteoinductive factor, causes HO if and only if the muscle is damaged. This model is unique in that it recapitulates the pathophysiological features of post-traumatic HO in which muscle damage is essential for bone formation. The model was also used to show that the progenitor cell microenvironment plays a predominant role in the development of this pathology. Based on these results, we HYPOTHESIZED that the microenvironment of the damaged muscle contains factors that can influence the phenotype of its progenitor cell populations, thus promoting the development of HO. Our results showed that the hypoxic state of a severely damaged muscle increases the proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of mrSCs and also specifically induces the expression of BMP9 by mrSCs. The impact of BMP9 on the differentiation of MPCs was also evaluated. At physiological concentrations, BMP9 inhibited the myogenic differentiation potential of murine myoblast C2C12 cells and primary human MPCs, and triggered their differentiation into an osteogenic lineage. In summary, we showed that damaged muscle that develops HO has a specific microenvironment that is responsible for the loss of the regenerative capacity of progenitor cells, leading to a delay in myogenesis, and that mrSCs and MPCs are both involved in osteogenesis. The identification and understanding of the mechanisms regulating these key factors could provide clinicians with valuable diagnostic tools as well as alternative and/or complementary approaches to current prophylactic treatments.

During the past few decades, the sport industry has experienced immense pressure to commercialise its operations and conform to traditional business practices (Chadwick 2009:191). With this evolution from a pure leisure activity to a multimillion dollar industry, it has become evident that the unique characteristics and deeply rooted historical culture of sport pose significant challenges for the sport manager during the process of commercialisation and the application of strategic management. The aim of this study was to analyse the current business environment of Cycling South Africa (CyclingSA) in such a way that the factors in the micro-environment, market environment and macro-environment that impact on the organisation‟s strategic decisions could be identified. The results should allow sport organisations to engage more effectively in strategic management by focusing on factors that influence the sport organisation‟s business environment in particular. A survey of CyclingSA members‟ perceptions of the organisation‟s current effectiveness in the business environment revealed a strong focus on financial and marketing elements. The study also found that factors such as loyalty programmes, talent identification and sport science support, safety in the physical environment, antidoping regulations, transformation and black economic empowerment and environmental friendly practices play a key role in CyclingSA‟s business environment. It is evident from the study that sport organisations, with specific reference to CyclingSA, should engage in strategic management by adapting traditional business principles to suit each organisation‟s unique needs. / Business Management / M. Comm.(Business Management)

Adverse health effects from exposure to air pollution, although at present only partly understood, are a global challenge and of widespread concern. Quantifying human exposure to air pollutants is challenging, as ambient concentrations of air pollutants at potentially harmful levels are ubiquitous and subject to high spatial and temporal variability. At the same time, individuals have their very own unique activity-patterns. Hence exposure results from intertwined relationships between environmental and human systems add complexity to the assessment process. It is essential to develop a deeper understanding of individual exposure pathways and situations occurring in people’s everyday lives. This is important especially with regard to exposure and health impact assessment which provide the basis for public health advice and policy development. This thesis describes the development and application of a personal monitoring method to assess exposure to fine particulate matter in a variety of microenvironments. Tools and methods applied are tested with respect to feasibility, intrusiveness, performance and potential for future applications. The development of the method focuses on the application in everyday environments and situations in an attempt to capture as much of the total exposure as possible, across a complete set of microenvironments. Seventeen volunteers took part in the pilot study, collected data and provided feedback on methodology and tools applied. The low-cost particle counter applied showed good agreement with reference instruments when studied in two different environments. Based on the assessment of the two instruments functions to derive particle mass concentration from the original particle number counts have been defined. The application of the devices and tools received positive feedback from the volunteers. Limitations are mainly related to the non-weatherproof design of the particle counter. The collection of time-activity patterns with GPS and time-activity diaries is challenging and requires careful processing. Resulting personal exposure profiles highlight the influence of individual activities and contextual factors. Highest concentrations were measured in indoor environments where people also spent the majority of time. Differences between transport modes as well as between urban and rural areas were identified.

A Thesis submitted to The University of Arizona College of Medicine - Phoenix in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Medicine. / Histopathologic examination of the tumor microenvironment demonstrates the presence of a vast repertoire of infiltrating lymphocytes and antigen presenting cells (APC’s). Recent studies establish a strong correlation between the tumor microenvironment cell composition and prognostic value in terms of cell type, location and ratio, referred to as a tumor’s immunoscore. More specifically, the relationship between T regulatory (Treg) cell to T effector (Teff) cell percentage predominates as a mechanism of tumor immune evasion. Further investigation of the factors influencing the development of Treg and Teff cells is therefore warranted. Gammainterferon‐inducible lysosomal thiol reductase (GILT) acts to influence antigenic processing and presentation by MHC class II cells, ultimately impacting lymphocyte development. Evaluation of the role of GILT expression in MHC class II+ APC’s with respect to Treg and Teff cell development in primary melanoma lesions, to our knowledge, has not been reported. Therefore our investigation focuses on elucidating a plausible relationship between GILT presence and Treg to Teff cell ratio. The aim of our study is to examine a possible association between GILT expression in APC’s and Treg:Teff cell ratio. We hypothesized GILT expression in melanoma cells would result in a decreased Treg to Teff ratio or an enhanced T cell‐mediated response. Our study included 17 de‐identified primary melanoma specimens previously stained and scored for Treg, Teff, CD8, MHC class II and GILT. Scoring was performed through identification of four areas per specimen with highest Treg and Teff cell density. These four areas were then averaged with ± standard deviation (SD). With use of landmark association, these four areas were identified and scored for MHC class II and GILT in APC’s and tumor cells with consideration to presence/absence, intensity and frequency of staining. Statistical significance was not reached relative to our hypothesized relationship of a decreased Treg to Teff cell ratio in the presence of GILT+ MHC class II. Similarly, we did not reach statistical significance when comparing individual cell types to GILT, MHC class II and GILT + MHC class. In our study, we were unable reach statistical significance relative to our proposed correlation between MHC class II and GILT presence leading to a decreased Treg to Teff cell ratio or enhanced T‐cell mediated immune response. A major limitation of our study included the small sample size leading to a probable type II error, prompting the need for further investigation of the factors influencing the Treg to Teff cell ratio within the melanoma tumor microenvironment on a larger scale.

Afin de mieux comprendre les bases physiopathologiques des tumeurs osseuses des mâchoires, nous avons étudié deux modèles de tumeurs associées à des mutations génétiques connues : la tumeur kératokystique odontogène (TKO), liée à la mutation de PTCH1, et le chérubinisme, lié à la mutation de SH3BP2. Au regard des travaux d’oncogénétique, nous formulons l’hypothèse que le développement des tumeurs ostéolytiques bénignes des mâchoires de l’enfant et leur agressivité repose sur un mécanisme génétique. Nous avons montré que la présence d’une mutation de PTCH1 (germinale avec syndrome de Gorlin) dans les TKO était un facteur de mauvais pronostic, stimulant un centre tumoral secondaire, responsable de lésions à distance, mais que cette agressivité pouvait aussi être liée à des mécanismes inflammatoires. Dans le chérubinisme, nous avons montré que la mutation était responsable du phénotype, mais que le type de mutation n’influençait pas le pronostic ni l’agressivité. L’agressivité tumorale est liée au phénotype des cellules géantes multinucléées (cellules myéloïdes à différenciation macrophagique ou ostéoclastique). Nous avons montré, que le modèle murin ne pouvait pas s’appliquer à la pathologie humaine, avec notamment un rôle très secondaire du TNF-α. Enfin nous avons démontré le rôle important de NFATc1 dans la physiopathologie du chérubinisme qui nous a permis de proposer, le tacrolimus, comme le premier agent thérapeutique efficace. Nos résultats suggèrent que les mutations induisent la pathologie et que les changements du microenvironnement (liés à la flore buccale ou à l’éruption dentaire) entretiennent la pathologie. / To determine pathophysiological bases of jawbone tumors, we studied two genetic models of jawbone tumors: keratocystic odontogenic tumors (KOT) associated to PTCH1 mutation and cherubism associated to SH3BP2 mutation. From oncogenetic theory, we postulate that genetic background controls the development of benign children jawbone tumors. From our work, we demonstrated that PTCH1 mutation (germline mutation in Gorlin syndrome) was an unfavorable prognosis factor for KOT, leading to distant and independent daughter tumors. Moreover, we showed, that chorionic inflammation was associated with a high recurrence rate. In cherubism, SH3BP2 mutation produced cherubism phenotype, but the type of mutation did not affect the aggressiveness of the disease. Cherubism aggressiveness was determined by the phenotype of giant multinucleated cells (whether osteoclasts or macrophages). Furthermore, we showed that murine model could not be transposed to human pathology; indeed it appeared that TNF- α did not play a critical role in human cherubism. On the other side, we showed that NFATc1 played a crucial role in cherubism pathophysiology; this observation allowed us to propose, the tacrolimus, as an effective treatment for this disease. Our results suggest that genetic background induced tumor development, and that microenvironment changes (due to flora of the oral cavity and to teeth eruptions) are responsible to the maintenance and the progression of the disease.

Afin de mieux comprendre les bases physiopathologiques des tumeurs osseuses des mâchoires, nous avons étudié deux modèles de tumeurs associées à des mutations génétiques connues : la tumeur kératokystique odontogène (TKO), liée à la mutation de PTCH1, et le chérubinisme, lié à la mutation de SH3BP2. Au regard des travaux d’oncogénétique, nous formulons l’hypothèse que le développement des tumeurs ostéolytiques bénignes des mâchoires de l’enfant et leur agressivité repose sur un mécanisme génétique. Nous avons montré que la présence d’une mutation de PTCH1 (germinale avec syndrome de Gorlin) dans les TKO était un facteur de mauvais pronostic, stimulant un centre tumoral secondaire, responsable de lésions à distance, mais que cette agressivité pouvait aussi être liée à des mécanismes inflammatoires. Dans le chérubinisme, nous avons montré que la mutation était responsable du phénotype, mais que le type de mutation n’influençait pas le pronostic ni l’agressivité. L’agressivité tumorale est liée au phénotype des cellules géantes multinucléées (cellules myéloïdes à différenciation macrophagique ou ostéoclastique). Nous avons montré, que le modèle murin ne pouvait pas s’appliquer à la pathologie humaine, avec notamment un rôle très secondaire du TNF-α. Enfin nous avons démontré le rôle important de NFATc1 dans la physiopathologie du chérubinisme qui nous a permis de proposer, le tacrolimus, comme le premier agent thérapeutique efficace. Nos résultats suggèrent que les mutations induisent la pathologie et que les changements du microenvironnement (liés à la flore buccale ou à l’éruption dentaire) entretiennent la pathologie. / To determine pathophysiological bases of jawbone tumors, we studied two genetic models of jawbone tumors: keratocystic odontogenic tumors (KOT) associated to PTCH1 mutation and cherubism associated to SH3BP2 mutation. From oncogenetic theory, we postulate that genetic background controls the development of benign children jawbone tumors. From our work, we demonstrated that PTCH1 mutation (germline mutation in Gorlin syndrome) was an unfavorable prognosis factor for KOT, leading to distant and independent daughter tumors. Moreover, we showed, that chorionic inflammation was associated with a high recurrence rate. In cherubism, SH3BP2 mutation produced cherubism phenotype, but the type of mutation did not affect the aggressiveness of the disease. Cherubism aggressiveness was determined by the phenotype of giant multinucleated cells (whether osteoclasts or macrophages). Furthermore, we showed that murine model could not be transposed to human pathology; indeed it appeared that TNF- α did not play a critical role in human cherubism. On the other side, we showed that NFATc1 played a crucial role in cherubism pathophysiology; this observation allowed us to propose, the tacrolimus, as an effective treatment for this disease. Our results suggest that genetic background induced tumor development, and that microenvironment changes (due to flora of the oral cavity and to teeth eruptions) are responsible to the maintenance and the progression of the disease.

Le traitement du cancer à l’aide d’une exposition aux radiations ionisantes peut mener au développement de plusieurs effets secondaires importants, dont un retard de réparation et de régénération du tissu hématopoïétique. Les mécanismes responsables de ces effets demeurent encore inconnus, ce qui limite le développement de nouvelles approches thérapeutiques. À l’aide d’un modèle murin de prise de greffe, nos résultats démontrent que l’endommagement du microenvironnement par l’irradiation a un impact limitant sur le nichage hématopoïétique. Parce que le microenvironnement est composé principalement de cellules dérivées des cellules souches mésenchymateuses (CSM), nous avons évalué le potentiel des CSM à régénérer le tissu hématopoïétique par la reconstitution de la niche osseuse. Cette thérapie a mené à une augmentation remarquable du nichage hématopoïétique chez les souris irradiées. Les causes moléculaires impliquées dans le nichage hématopoïétiques sont encore inconnues, mais nous avons remarqué l’augmentation de la sécrétion de la cytokine « granulocyte-colony stimulating factor » (G-CSF) dans l’espace médullaire suite à l’irradiation. Le G-CSF est impliqué dans la mobilisation cellulaire et est fort possiblement nuisible à une prise de greffe. Nous avons évalué le potentiel d’une thérapie à base de CSM sécrétant le récepteur soluble du G-CSF afin de séquestrer le G-CSF transitoirement et les résultats obtenus démontrent que le blocage du G-CSF favorise le nichage hématopoïétique. Globalement, les données présentées dans ce mémoire démontrent que le microenvironnement osseux et le niveau de G-CSF dans la moelle sont importants dans le processus de nichage hématopoïétique et que la baisse du potentiel de régénération du tissu hématopoïétique suite à l’irradiation peut être renversée à l’aide d’une thérapie cellulaire de CSM génétiquement modifiées ou non. / Cancer treatment using ionizing radiation may lead to significant side effects, including delayed hematopoietic tissue repair and regeneration. The mechanisms mediating these defects remain unknown, thus limiting the development of new therapeutic approaches. Using a mouse engraftment model, our results show that microenvironment damage by irradiation limits hematopoietic homing. Since the microenvironment is mainly composed of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs)-derived cells, we evaluated the potential of MSCs to improve hematopoietic tissue regeneration by bone marrow niche reconstitution. This therapy led to remarkable enhancement of hematopoietic homing in irradiated mice. The molecular causes involved in hematopoietic homing remain unknown, but we noticed an increased in “granulocyte-colony stimulating factor” (G-CSF) secretion within the medullary space after irradiation. G-CSF is involved in cellular mobilization and may possibly be harmful to engraftment. We evaluated the therapeutical potential of MSC genetically-engineered to secrete a soluble G-CSF decoy receptor that would transiently sequester G-CSF. Results obtained show that G-CSF blocking improved hematopoietic homing. Overall, the findings presented in this thesis indicate that bone marrow microenvironment and G-CSF levels are important in hematopoietic homing process, and that the decline in hematopoietic tissue regeneration potential following irradiation can be reversed by cellular therapy using MSC genetically modified or not.