The subject of this thesis is the restoration project of Cin Kule in Payas. The building is one of the unique examples of watch towers dating to 16th century -Classical Ottoman period.

During the 18th and 19th centuries, the evolution of artillery has commanded the evolution of military architecture. Fortifications physically depict a representation of the history of engineering and architectural principles; including strategic site placement, materiality, construction methodology, principles of weaponry, defense and design layout. Visiting any one of these enigmatic and monumental structures offers a walk into the past, a glimpse into the ideologies, cultures and sentiments of its conception. Fortifications, particularly American fortifications, lay silent waiting for visitors to unlock their contributions to the national and local historic fabric. Fort Washington is one such structure located within Fort Washington Park, Maryland perched above the Bank of the Potomac River where it long protected the Nation's Capital. Through my research, I propose to answer the following questions: How did the evolution of artillery and its unique site influence the design layout of Fort Washington? How does one begin to revive and restore such an extraordinary site? How can the architecture of today spark the interest of visitors while encompassing the needs of local residents? My proposal for a new, multifunctional visitor center tries to embrace, respect and reflect the existing structures by inspiring wonder among tourists and attracting local residents while also allowing for their restoration and self-sustainment. / Master of Architecture

During the Battle of Hong Kong fought in December 1941, Wong Nai Chung Gap was a major battlefield as it was a strategic location. Like almost all battlefields in this Battle, however, the defensive military installations within the subject area, most in ruins nowadays, have never been professionally surveyed with the purpose of mapping the military buildings of the battlefield apart from those reported in Lai et al (2011) to better fathom the flow of battle. Indeed, the only professionally surveyed military relics were those by Lai and Ho for Devil’s Peak and Lai, Davies, Ching, Tan and Wong (2011) for Shing Mun Redoubt. All existing historical researches suffer from a lack of accurate mapping information, if at all, essential for understanding the conduct of military hostilities. This thesis illustrates how an accurate exercise locating and mapping of three pillboxes (PB 1, PB2 and PB3), among other war relics in the vicinity, near Wong Nai Chung Gap in Hong Kong Island was performed; and addresses historical and conservation issues using direct on-site measurement by professional mapping techniques. GIS was used as the key tool for analysis and interpretation. The survey results were then used to identify the configurations and distribution of the war relics in Wong Nai Chung area and to verify the authenticity of war diary records provided by the defender on the battle. Precise arcs of fire of key permanent defence structures in relation to the surrounding topography were accurately determined. They help explain and reconstruct a prominent battle that took place some 70 years ago. It should provide a solid referent for war historians, relics’ enthusiasts as to how the state-of-art GIS technology can be used in probing key intriguing historical questions. Those addressed in this thesis, in relation particularly to three pillboxes, the observation post (OP) on the summit of Jardines’ Lookout and Stanley Gap, are: (1) Did PB 1 really kill that many enemies? (2) Why didn’t PB2 report to have fired at enemies along the Ride or Wong Nai Chung Gap? (3) Why didn’t PB 3 fire at all? (4) What were the daylight vision of the three PBs and the OP on the 18/19 December 1941? (5) What was the defence philosophy of the pillboxes? (6) Was the Japanese portrait on the battle correct in terms of details? (7) What was the role of the OP on the summit of Jardine’s Lookout? (8) Were Brigade Lawson’s Headquarters protected by any PB? (9) What were the locations of the military installations now destroyed or buried? (10) What were the locations of the military installations near Stanley Gap? To address the ten questions above, three working hypotheses are established for questions (1) to (3) while accurate on site measurements could be applied in finding the rest of the questions. For question (1), the hypothesis is: PB1 could not kill that many enemies because of faulty or unsatisfactory design. It would be refuted if the beaten zones of machine guns mounted inside the pillboxes could cover the major military strongholds of Wong Nai Chung Gap area. The hypothesis for question (2) is: PB2 did cover all routes of attack but only no information about fires was reported in the war diary. It would be refuted if PB2 had any blind-spot in shooting. The hypothesis for question (3) is: the beaten zones of PB3 could cover most of the important fighting areas, e.g. PB1; PB2; the Ride across the valley; the West Brigade HQ as well as the upper reach of Blue Pool Road (then existing) etc. It would be refuted if PB3 had certain blind-spots. The questions from (4) to (10) could be decoded through the onsite accurate measurements. This thesis is an empirical analysis of how the professional mapping techniques are used to plug some gaps in the history of the battle of Wong Nai Chung. The aim of the thesis is to find out some enigma by means of on-site and desk top study. This thesis reports on a number of key findings: the main conclusions drawn from this research showed that, first, PB1 could cover the major military strongholds and both PB2 and PB3 had a certain areas of shooting blind-spots. Nevertheless, the OP together with the three PBs, could cover most of the southern side of today’s Deep Water Bay Road; the eastern side of Repulse Bay Road as well as the almost the entire northern dam of Wong Nai Chung Reservoir except the southern side of the reservoir. The results of the thesis show that the firing arcs of PB3 could not cover the major fighting areas in 19th December 1941 but it could have, apart from delayed the capture of the Wong Nai Chung Gap by the Japanese, inflicted heavier casualties on the enemies because it covered the Police Knoll and the reservoir dam which formed part of the Stanley Gap Road. Secondly, by identifying the surviving war relics in Wong Nai Chung Gap, this thesis should contribute to better conservation research through on-site surveying of these features in a relative large scale which are not documented in any previous literature before. Upon finding out the accurate geographical locations of these surviving war relics, we could appreciate the rest of our research questions; i.e. the truthfulness of the inferred position on the Sir Cecil’s Ride below PB2 from the barbed wire stand which shown in the Japanese portrait; Brigade Lawson’s Headquarters was indeed protected by PB1 but not PB2; there are bunkers and water closets still remain intact in Stanley Gap. In addition, this thesis offers constructive thoughts on how mapping techniques could be contributed to the conservation of historic war heritages. Overall, the findings of this research proved that on-site measurements, together with contemporary GIS technology, can be used as a major tool of explaining the mysterious matters during the war. This thesis comprises of five chapters and the style follows the norms in Kate L. Turabian. Chapter 1 is the introduction. It serves as a general introduction to the thesis. It will commence by a historic review of the battle of Hong Kong in 1941. By describing the background of the battle of Wong Nai Chung Gap, it will points out some enigmatic problems found in war diaries. This chapter states the aims and hypotheses of this study and identify the scope of the research. Specifically, it raises ten specific research questions. Chapter 2 is a literature review. It shows that the “state of art” of battle history is one of written records, collection of photos and small scale sketches without the help of accurate mapping inputs. Where plans/maps were produced in history texts, they were in small scale and hence of limited use for forensic or conservation purposes. In other words, historians are handicapped by a lack of sensitivity to the importance of spatial analysis. This review shows the significance and potential contribution of land surveying in military heritage research and policy development. Chapter 3 describes the methodology of the land survey conducted. It commences by examining the theoretical basis as well as the principles of the technology used and will also present how mapping as well as the state-of-the-art Geographical Information Systems (GIS) techniques were actually used to perform terrain analysis based on the accurate surveyed positions of the war relics. Ten hypotheses in relation to the questions specified in Chapter 1 are formulated. Chapter 4 provides the survey findings and analysis for the ten hypotheses. Chapter 5 is the conclusion. This chapter summarises the thesis and discusses its methodological limitations and significance for heritage research and policy. It also makes suggestions for future research. / published_or_final_version / Real Estate and Construction / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

Zugl.: Aachen, Techn. Hochsch., Diplomarbeit, 2006

Cette thèse concerne l’histoire, l’archéologie et la géographie historique de la Chine ancienne. Elle porte sur les formations des commanderies impériales formées aux frontières de la dynastie des Han occidentaux (206 av. J.-C. – 9 apr. J.-C.). À la charnière des IIe et Ier siècles av. J.-C., le maintien des territoires conquis passait par une stratégie impériale complexe allant d’une phase d’occupation militaire jusqu’à la mise en place d’une politique migratoire de populations civiles issues du centre de l’empire. En nous concentrant sur Dunhuang (province du Gansu), la plus lointaine des commanderies formées aux marches occidentales du territoire, nous suivons localement ces stratégies d’acquisition et d’occupation. L’analyse se fonde sur les missions de terrain menées par l’auteur, sur la relecture des Histoires dynastiques, la prise en compte des données matérielles issues des fouilles et prospections archéologiques et l’exploitation de sources épigraphiques inédites. Par le biais d’une nouvelle méthodologie, nous parvenons à individualiser son développement au sein d’un territoire situé au carrefour commercial et diplomatique avec les royaumes et cultures centre-asiatiques. De la mise à jour de sa cartographie antique et de sa chronologie, il résulte une révision complète des premières phases de développements des principaux centres administratifs militaires et civils de Dunhuang. / This dissertation centers on the history, archeology and historical geography of Early China. It examines the steps of establishment of the imperial commanderies founded in the vicinity of the Western Han dynasty boundaries (206 BCE – 9 AD). At the turn of the second and the first centuries BCE, the imperial strategical efforts made to stabilize of newly conquered territories passed through a complex system. Starting from the military occupation il lead to the migration of populations from the center of the empire. Focusing on Dunhuang (Gansu Province) – the westernmost commandery established with the Empire borders – we follow at regional scale those strategies of conquest and occupation. In addition of various fieldwork performed by the author, this research is based on a different approach of the Dynastic Histories, the use of archaeological data and the exploitation of untrodden epigraphic material. By using a new methodology, we have managed to individualize its development within a territory located at the crossroads of commercial and diplomatic highways with the Central-Asian kingdoms and cultures. As a result of its cartography and chronology being put up to date, we have obtained a complete revision of the first steps of organization of the main military and civilian centers of Dunhuang.

Depuis les premières recherches archéologiques sur le site de Pétra au début du XXe s., certaines questions concernant la défense de la ville n'ont pas véritablement été abordées : il n’y a pas consensus sur l'existence et la datation de fortifications, notamment pour l'époque nabatéenne. Cette étude a pour objectif de vérifier l’existence d’un éventuel système défensif reposant sur un réseau de fortifications et de postes de guet au travers d'un relevé des vestiges archéologiques visibles en surface et de pouvoir en préciser la chronologie grâce à l’observation des techniques de construction et l’analyse de la céramique de surface. D’après la répartition des vestiges défensifs répertoriés, la défense de la ville semble avoir été assurée par un système contrôlant des points stratégiques sur un territoire incluant les secteurs périphériques de la ville. Le volume I replace tout d’abord Pétra dans son milieu naturel, décrit son espace urbain et présente le contexte géopolitique de la Nabatène. Il est ensuite consacré à l'étude archéologique du système défensif des Nabatéens de Pétra : l'histoire de la recherche sur ce sujet, l'organisation et l’architecture militaires des Nabatéens, l’analyse de la répartition des vestiges défensifs par type, accompagnée de datations et d'interprétations sur la fonction de chacun d'eux. Il se termine par une étude comparative avec d'autres systèmes défensifs développés en d'autres temps à Pétra et en d'autres lieux, nabatéens ou hasmonéens. Le volume II est consacré au catalogue décrivant les différents secteurs où des vestiges défensifs ont été enregistrés. Enfin, les volumes III et III bis sont dédiés à l'illustration. / Since the first archaeological researches were carried out at Petra in the early 20th century, some questions regarding the defense of the city haven’t been tackled: there is still no consensus on the existence of fortifications and their dating, especially when it comes to the Nabatean period. The purpose of the present study is to determine, thanks to an inventory of archaeological site surface remains, the existence of a possible defense system relying on a network of fortifications and observation posts, and specify its chronology through the survey of building techniques and surface pottery analysis. According to the distribution of the listed defensive remains, the defense of the city seems to have been ensured by a system which controls strategic locations in a territory including the peripheral areas of the city. Volume I first puts Petra in its natural environment, describes its urban space and presents the geopolitical context of Nabataea. It is then focused on the archaeological study of the defensive system of the Nabataeans from Petra: the history of research on this subject, the military organization and architecture of the Nabateans, the analysis of the distribution of the defensive remains according to their type, complemented with datings and interpretations on the function of each remain. It ends by a comparative study with other defensive systems developed in other times in Petra and in other places, Nabataeans or Hasmoneans. The volume II is dedicated to the catalog which describes the various areas where defensive remains were recorded. Finally, the volumes III and III bis are specifically dedicated to illustrations.

Unsettling Colonial Science: Modern Architecture and Indigenous Claims to Land in North America and the Pacific examines the contested landscapes of research infrastructure and settler colonialism. During the 1950s and 60s, as the Cold War accelerated, Big Science sought new frontiers both conceptual and spatial. While the alliance between modern architecture and postwar scientific research has been the subject of significant historical work, the settler colonial politics and land relations ingrained in these large-scale laboratories and research stations has gone under-discussed. Investigating federally-funded research installations constructed from the 1950s-1990s, this dissertation addresses how Cold War-era science participated in the settlement of landscapes perceived as inhospitable through discourses and practices of “modernism.” It also examines Indigenous opposition to these land occupations as acts of self-determination. Covering a wide geography—from the Kitt Peak Observatory on Ioligam Du’ag in the Tohono O’odham Nation, to the Inuvik Research Laboratory in Inuvik in the Northwest Territories of Canada, to the Mauna Kea Observatories on the Mauna Kea volcano on the island of Hawai‘i this dissertation moves between spaces where the universalism, modernism, and colonialism of the postwar settler colonial project are contested through material practices in the landscape and built environment. These places reveal how settler colonialism contributed to US empire in the twentieth century. Importantly, they also broaden discourses of resistance and refusal, showing how traditional land use, material culture, and mobility practices give rise to resistance movements. This dissertation investigates how different resistance movements protested the construction of research infrastructures on their lands. Across these cases, modern architecture does not operate uniformly. In some instances it is part of a state-initiated modernization project; in others affiliated with military-industrial architecture; and others an aesthetic exercise in a romanticized landscape. But in all, architecture is used to reify a division between Western modernity and “traditional knowledge” that undercuts land-based claims to sovereignty. Tohono O’odham, Kānaka Maoli, and Gwich’in activists and practitioners, along with environmental advocates and allies, mobilized grounded forms of refusal to insist that land use is political. I argue that these places and their histories reveal how modern architecture orders the land and its political meaning within settler colonial contexts. In the mid-twentieth century, federal science agencies, engineering departments, and architecture corporations deployed modernism as an instrument to make public and trust lands productive and national. Architecture is also a site where jurisdiction, land use, and the relationship to land is contested. These contestations open on to anticolonial histories of the built environment.

Les fortifications de la Grèce du Nord des époques archaïque, classique et hellénistique n’avaient à ce jour jamais fait l’objet d’une étude de synthèse permettant d’identifier, de décrire et de comparer l’ensemble des remparts de cette région. Mises à part les fortifications des grandes cités bien connues grâce aux fouilles archéologiques et à la bonne préservation des structures, telles Amphipolis, Philippi et Thasos, les autres murailles ou systèmes défensifs du Nord de l’Égée sont pratiquement inconnus, d’où l’intérêt d’une telle recherche. Les seuls ouvrages collectifs en lien avec les fortifications du Nord sont ceux de D. Lazaridis qui, en s’intéressant aux peraia de Thasos et Samothrace, nous laissa les plans topographiques de nombreux établissements fortifiés, sans toutefois en faire la description. Ce mémoire propose donc un catalogue raisonné de l’architecture militaire du Nord de la Grèce, complété par un commentaire exhaustif où les vestiges défensifs seront comparés de façon régionale et, lorsque possible, avec l’ensemble du monde grec. Au total, 37 établissements de plusieurs types (cité, phrourion et emporion) font l’objet de cette étude. Cependant, contrairement aux grandes études sur le sujet qui présentent de magnifiques remparts, cet ouvrage est souvent confronté à des vestiges fragmentaires qui certes, laissent place à l’interprétation et à la discussion, mais provoquent aussi une certaine frustration, puisque parfois, l’état des ruines restreint notre travail. Bien que le développement des fortifications grecques pose encore de nombreux problèmes, on constate une évolution architecturale aux périodes archaïque, classique et hellénistique, également attestée en Grèce du Nord. Mais comme le démontre notre étude, les Grecs établis dans ce territoire colonial provenaient de plusieurs régions et ils ont apporté avec eux leurs traditions et des techniques particulières qui ont largement influencées les ouvrages défensifs de leurs nouvelles cités. / The fortifications of Northern Greece from the Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic periods have so far never been collaboratively studied to identify, describe, and compare the walls of this region. In addition to the larger cities that are well known owing to archaeology and the preservations of the walls found in areas such as Amphipolis, Philippi, and Thasos, other walls and defenses to the north of the Aegean are virtually unknown or briefly mentioned, hence the interest of such an undertaking. The only collective works related with the fortifications of the north are those of D. Lazaridis that, by focusing on the peraia on Thasos and Samothrace, left the topographical plans of many fortified settlements, without giving a description of them. This thesis then proposes a descriptive and analytical catalogue of the military architecture of Northern Greece, as well as an “observation” part where defensive remnants will be compared regionally and, if possible, throughout the Greek world. A total of 37 settlements of all types (city, phrourion, and emporion) will be subject to this study. However, unlike the major studies on the subject that present magnificent ramparts, this work is often confronted with fragmentary remains that certainly leave room for interpretation and discussion, and moreover to desolation, for occasionally, very little can be said on the ruins of a short segment of wall. Although the general history of Greek fortifications is still unclear we can still note that a certain architectural evolution occurs in the Greek ramparts during the Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic periods. It would be normal to find this same phenomenon in Northern Greece particularly. However, we also know that many people from cities all over the Greek world converged on the Thracian coast. Therefore, these colonists arrived with customs and techniques that could characterize the walls of the northern region and even create new regional phenomena.

The architectural heritage of a place is not just the architectural elements expressed in its construction, but through memory, the historical burden and the daily experiences of the people involved in its existence. Thus, the government and the community in which this heritage is inserted, need to recognize its preservation as a means of safeguarding its history. At the same time, this expression is one of the most significant events for the understanding of urban history, so it is essential to carry out analyzes that reveal the cultural and constructive aspects arranged in its walls. Thus, this paper proposed to inventory the architectural ensemble of an example of the military heritage present in the city, built in 1909, Vigésimo Novo Grupo de Artilharia de Campanha Auto Propulsada, known by the nickname Grupo Humaitá. The research aims to highlight the historical, cultural and architectural aspects of the institution, emphasizing the analysis of the implementation and on the frontage of buildings, as a contribution to the pursuit of preservationist awareness. This information was cataloged by executors records as a way to contribute to the development of the inventory of military and civilian buildings of cultural interest in Cruz Alta and in Rio Grande do Sul. Through this work, it was intended to go along to enlarge the knowledge and dissemination of this property before the cruzaltense community, rescuing the memory, and providing subsidies to contribute to public policies and action plans in the areas of preservation of this heritage in the city as a way of disseminating the research, it was supposed to prepare a visual guide of the architectural repertoire of the buildings as a way to publicize the data and contribute to actions in favor of heritage education. / O patrimônio arquitetônico de um local não se resume apenas aos elementos arquitetônicos expressos na sua construção, mas através da memória, da carga histórica e da vivencia diária das pessoas envolvidas em sua existência. Desta forma, o poder público e a comunidade em que este patrimônio está inserido, necessita reconhecer a sua preservação, como meio de salvaguarda da sua história. Ao mesmo tempo, esta expressão representa uma das manifestações mais significativas para o entendimento da história urbana, por isso, é essencial a realização de análises que revelem os aspectos culturais e construtivos dispostos em suas paredes. Desta forma, o presente trabalho propôs inventariar através da ficha do IPHAN modificada, o conjunto arquitetônico de um exemplar do patrimônio militar presente no município, construído no ano de 1909, o Vigésimo Nono Grupo de Artilharia de Campanha Auto Propulsada, conhecido pela alcunha de Grupo Humaitá. A pesquisa busca dar destaque aos aspectos históricos, culturais e arquitetônicos da instituição, dando ênfase na análise da implantação e nas fachadas das edificações, como forma de contribuição para na busca da conscientização preservacionista. Estas informações foram catalogadas através de fichas inventariantes, além de análise do conjunto arquitetônico existente, como forma de contribuir para o desenvolvimento do inventário dos edifícios militares e civis de interesse cultural no município de Cruz Alta e no Rio Grande do Sul. Através deste trabalho, pretendeu-se colaborar no sentido de ampliar os conhecimentos e divulgação deste bem perante a comunidade cruzaltense, resgatando a memória, e fornecendo subsídios para contribuir para políticas públicas e planos de ações nas áreas de preservação do patrimônio presente no município. Como forma de divulgação da pesquisa, coube a elaboração de um guia visual do repertório arquitetônico das edificações, como forma de publicitar os dados obtidos e contribuir em ações em prol da educação patrimonial.

Le XVIe siècle qui voit l'expansion de l'empire ottoman en Méditerranée orientale, propulse la petite bourgade d'Alger au rang de capitale de Régence et bastion militaire de la Porte Sublime, sur les côtes du Maghreb, face à l'hégémonie de l'empire espagnol. Les Ottomans qui la transforment en ville guerrière, lui créent un port artificiel, la dotent de nouveaux remparts et établissent autour d'elle, un réseau de points de fortification, qui quadrille le territoire et contrôle la province. Entre 1516 et 1830, Alger qui est surnommée al Maḥrūssa (la bien gardée), reste imprenable par la mer. Son souci permanent de protection se traduit par un renforcement et un entretien continuels de ses fortifications. Cet essai qui ne prétend qu'à une contribution au vaste champ de recherche d'un corpus inédit, est une enquête sur une architecture totalement inexplorée, sur la base d'archives et de relevés in situ. L'exploration des archives du Génie militaire français, constituant une source fondamentale en grande partie inédite, servira à la restitution de la structure défensive de la province d'Alger. L'intérêt de ce travail réside principalement dans l'identification des typologies constructive et architecturale militaires d'Alger ottoman, qui permettent de cerner la culture constructive de guerre ottomane en Afrique du Nord. / The 16th century which saw the expansion of the ottoman empire in Eastern Mediterranean, propels the small town of Algiers to the rank of capital of Regency and military bastion of the Sublime Porte, on the Maghreb coast, facing the hegemony of the Spanish empire. The Ottomans who transform it into city Warrior, creates an artificial port, equipped with new ramparts and establish around it, a network of points of fortification, which quadrille the territory and supervise the province. Between 1516 and 1830, Algiers which is called al Maḥrūssa (well kept), remains impregnable by the sea. Its permanent concern for protection is to show the strengthened and continual maintenance of its fortifications. This essay claiming to a contribution to the vast field of research of an unpublished corpus is an investigation into a totally unexplored architecture, on the basis of archives and records in situ. The exploration of the archives of the French military engineering, constituting a fundamental source largely unpublished, will serve as the return of the defensive structure of the province of Algiers. The interest of this work lies mainly in the identification of the military constructive typologies and architectural of ottoman Algiers, which identify the constructive culture of Ottoman war in North Africa.