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Hyperhomocysteinemia (hHcys) is a widely known pathogenic factor in the progression of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and it is also associated with an increased risk for injurious cardiovascular pathologies during ESRD. HHcys is linked to the formation and activation of the NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, characterized as a critical early mechanism initiating the inflammatory response. NADPH oxidase (NOX)-derived reactive oxygen species (ROS) mediate the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome in podocytes in response to elevated levels of homocysteine (Hcys) in vitro and in vivo. However, it remains unknown how NLRP3 inflammasome activation is triggered by NOX. The aim of the present study sought to determine the signaling cascade that triggers glomerular injury and sclerosis during hHcys mediated by Vav2, a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GNEF). Using both genetic and pharmacological interventions of Vav2, we first tested whether this GNEF is involved in hHcys-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation in podocytes by its role in activation of the Rac-1-NOX complex. Further, we explored whether pharmacological targeting of Vav2 activation may regulate NLRP3 inflammasome signaling pathway during hHcys-induced glomerular injury. We found that mice with hHcys (on the FF diet) or oncoVav2 (a constitutively active form of Vav2) transfection in the kidney exhibited increased colocalization of NLRP3 with apoptosis-associated speck-like protein (ASC) or caspase-1 and elevated IL-1β levels in glomeruli, indicating the formation and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. This glomerular NLRP3 inflammasome activation was accompanied by podocyte dysfunction and glomerular injury, even sclerosis. Local transfection of Vav2 shRNA plasmids significantly attenuated hHcys-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation, podocyte injury, and glomerular sclerosis. In cultured podocytes, Hcys treatment and oncoVav2 transfection increased NLRP3 inflammasome formation and activation. This NLRP3 activation was inhibited by Vav2 shRNA, associated with reduction of Rac-1 activity and ROS production. Administration of NSC23766, a Rac-1 inhibitor substantially attenuated inflammasome formation, desmin expression and decreased podocin expression in glomeruli of hHcys mice. These results suggest that elevated Hcys levels activate Vav2 and thereby increase NOX activity, leading to ROS production. ROS trigger NLRP3 inflammasome activation, podocyte dysfunction and glomerular injury. Therefore, the present study defines a novel mechanism underlying hHcys-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation and its progression to ESRD.

O diabetes mellitus (DM) está associado a diversas complicações micro e macrovasculares diretamente relacionadas a doenças cardiovasculares. A prolongada exposição à hiperglicemia e a resistência a insulina são considerados os principais fatores envolvidos nestas complicações, as quais são exacerbadas pela disfunção endotelial. Mediadores inflamatórios contribuem potencialmente para o desenvolvimento de disfunção endotelial pela geração de espécies reativas de oxigênio (EROs) que, por sua vez, estimulam a transcrição de fatores pró- inflamatórios. Receptores específicos, como os NLRs (NOD-like receptors, receptores do tipo NOD) contribuem para instalação de processo inflamatório pela ativação do complexo inflamassoma. Este regula a ativação da caspase-1 e o processamento proteolítico dos precursores pró-IL-1? e pró-IL-18 nas citocinas maduras. Diversos mediadores podem ativar o inflamassoma NLRP3 como, por exemplo, EROs e DNA mitocondrial. Pouco é conhecido sobre o envolvimento de receptores NLRP3 e DNA mitocondrial na disfunção endotelial associada ao diabetes. Testamos a hipótese que a deficiência genética do receptor NLRP3 confere resistência à ativação de processo inflamatório na vasculatura de animais com diabetes tipo 1 (DM1) e, ainda, que DNA mitocondrial contribui para a ativação vascular do inflamassoma NLRP3 e para disfunção endotelial. Foram utilizados camundongos C57Bl/6 e deficientes para NLRP3, os quais foram tratados com veículo ou submetidos a protocolo para indução de DM1 com estreptozotocina. Parâmetros vasculares funcionais foram determinados em artérias mesentéricas de resistência. Células de músculo liso vascular (CMLV) e endoteliais foram utilizadas para avaliação da ativação do inflamassoma NLRP3 por DNA mitocondrial. A geração de EROs foi avaliada pela fluorescência para o dihidroetídio e pela quimiluminescência para lucigenina. A ativação de caspase-1 e IL-1? foi avaliada por western blot e o influxo de cálcio, por fluorescência. DNA mitocondrial foi avaliado pela expressão gênica de componentes da mitocôndria. O diabetes reduziu a vasodilatação dependente de endotélio, o que não ocorreu em artérias de animais deficientes de NLRP3. Animais diabéticos apresentaram aumento da expressão vascular do receptor NLRP3, da ativação de caspase-1 eIL-1? e da geração de EROs e peróxido de hidrogênio no leito mesentérico, eventos que ocorreram em menor intensidade em camundongos deficientes de NLRP3. Houve redução na expressão proteica vascular de Nox4 (NADPH oxidase 4), bem como na expressão gênica da molécula de adesão celular vascular-1 (VCAM-1, vascular cell adhesion molecule-1) e molécula de adesão intercelular-1 (ICAM-1, intercellular adhesion molecule-1) em animais deficientes de NLRP3. Houve aumento da liberação de DNA mitocondrial citosólico no pâncreas de animais diabéticos. A incubação com o DNA mitocondrial extraído do pâncreas de animais diabéticos promoveu ativação do inflamassoma em CMLV provenientes de animais C57Bl/6, mas não em CMLV provenientes de animais deficientes de NLRP3. Esta ativação foi associada ao aumento de EROs e influxo de cálcio. Essa mesma ativação também foi observada em células endoteliais. DNA mitocondrial de camundongos diabéticos também reduziu a dilatação dependente do endotélio em artérias mesentéricas, o que foi associado à geração de EROs e ativação do inflamassoma NLRP3. Pacientes diabéticos apresentaram aumento do DNA mitocondrial circulante e ativação de caspase-1 e IL-1? no soro. Os resultados demonstram que o DNA mitocondrial pancreático de animais diabéticos promove ativação, em CMLV e células endoteliais, do inflamassoma NLRP3 através do aumento no influxo de cálcio e da geração de EROs, contribuindo para o processo de disfunção endotelial. A deficiência de NLRP3 protege os animais diabéticos contra os danos vasculares inflamatórios e disfunção endotelial. / Diabetes mellitus (DM) is associated with several micro and macrovascular complications directly related to cardiovascular diseases. Prolonged exposure to hyperglycemia and insulin resistance are considered the main factors involved in these complications, which are exacerbated by endothelial dysfunction. Inflammatory mediators potentially contribute to the development of endothelial dysfunction by the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which, in turn, stimulate the transcription of pro-inflammatory factors. Specific receptors such as NLRs (NOD-like receptors) contribute to the onset of inflammatory processes by the activation of a multiprotein complex called inflammasome. The NLRP3 inflammasome regulates the activation of caspase-1 and the proteolytic processing of pro-IL-1? and pro-IL-18 precursors into mature cytokines. Several mediators, such as ROS and mitochondrial DNA activate the NLRP3 inflammasome. Considering that it is not clear whether NLRP3 and mitochondrial DNA contribute to diabetes-associated endothelial dysfunction, we hypothesized that the genetic deficiency of the NLRP3 confers resistance to vascular inflammatory processes in animals with type 1 diabetes (T1D) and that mitochondrial DNA contributes to vascular activation of NLRP3 inflammasome and endothelial dysfunction. C57B1/6 and NLRP3 knockout mice were treated with vehicle or streptozotocin to induce T1D. Functional vascular parameters were determined in resistance mesenteric arteries. Cultured vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) and endothelial cells were used to determine NLRP3 inflammasome activation by mitochondrial DNA. ROS generation was evaluated by dihydroethidium fluorescence and by chemiluminescence for lucigenin. Caspase-1 and IL-1? activation was evaluated by western blot. Calcium influx was determined by fluorescence and mitochondrial DNA by mRNA expression of mitochondrial components. Diabetes reduced endothelium-dependent vasodilation in C57B1/6, but not in NLRP3 knockout mice. Diabetic mice presented increased vascular NLRP3 receptor expression, increased caspase-1 and IL-1? activation, as well as ROS and hydrogen peroxide generation, events that were mildly observed in NLRP3 knockout mice. There was a reduction in the vascular protein expression of Nox4 (NADPH oxidase 4) as wellas in the gene expression of VCAM-1 (vascular cell adhesion molecule-1) and ICAM-1 (intercellular adhesion molecule-1) in NLRP3 knockout animals. There was an increase in cytosolic mitochondrial DNA release in pancreas from diabetic animals. Mitochondrial DNA from the pancreas of diabetic mice induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation in VSMC from C57B1/6 mice, but not in VSMC from NLRP3 knockout mice. This activation was associated with increased levels of ROS and calcium influx and was also detected in endothelial cells. Mitochondrial DNA from diabetic mice also decreased endothelium-dependent dilation in mesenteric arteries, which was associated with ROS generation and NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Diabetic patients exhibited increased serum mitochondrial DNA and caspase-1 and IL-1? activation. The results demonstrate that pancreatic mitochondrial DNA from diabetic mice activates the NLRP3 inflammasome in VSMC and endothelial cells by increasing calcium influx and ROS generation, contributing to endothelial dysfunction. NLRP3 deficiency prevents diabetes-related vascular inflammatory damage and endothelial dysfunction.

O diabetes mellitus (DM) está associado a diversas complicações micro e macrovasculares diretamente relacionadas a doenças cardiovasculares. A prolongada exposição à hiperglicemia e a resistência a insulina são considerados os principais fatores envolvidos nestas complicações, as quais são exacerbadas pela disfunção endotelial. Mediadores inflamatórios contribuem potencialmente para o desenvolvimento de disfunção endotelial pela geração de espécies reativas de oxigênio (EROs) que, por sua vez, estimulam a transcrição de fatores pró- inflamatórios. Receptores específicos, como os NLRs (NOD-like receptors, receptores do tipo NOD) contribuem para instalação de processo inflamatório pela ativação do complexo inflamassoma. Este regula a ativação da caspase-1 e o processamento proteolítico dos precursores pró-IL-1? e pró-IL-18 nas citocinas maduras. Diversos mediadores podem ativar o inflamassoma NLRP3 como, por exemplo, EROs e DNA mitocondrial. Pouco é conhecido sobre o envolvimento de receptores NLRP3 e DNA mitocondrial na disfunção endotelial associada ao diabetes. Testamos a hipótese que a deficiência genética do receptor NLRP3 confere resistência à ativação de processo inflamatório na vasculatura de animais com diabetes tipo 1 (DM1) e, ainda, que DNA mitocondrial contribui para a ativação vascular do inflamassoma NLRP3 e para disfunção endotelial. Foram utilizados camundongos C57Bl/6 e deficientes para NLRP3, os quais foram tratados com veículo ou submetidos a protocolo para indução de DM1 com estreptozotocina. Parâmetros vasculares funcionais foram determinados em artérias mesentéricas de resistência. Células de músculo liso vascular (CMLV) e endoteliais foram utilizadas para avaliação da ativação do inflamassoma NLRP3 por DNA mitocondrial. A geração de EROs foi avaliada pela fluorescência para o dihidroetídio e pela quimiluminescência para lucigenina. A ativação de caspase-1 e IL-1? foi avaliada por western blot e o influxo de cálcio, por fluorescência. DNA mitocondrial foi avaliado pela expressão gênica de componentes da mitocôndria. O diabetes reduziu a vasodilatação dependente de endotélio, o que não ocorreu em artérias de animais deficientes de NLRP3. Animais diabéticos apresentaram aumento da expressão vascular do receptor NLRP3, da ativação de caspase-1 eIL-1? e da geração de EROs e peróxido de hidrogênio no leito mesentérico, eventos que ocorreram em menor intensidade em camundongos deficientes de NLRP3. Houve redução na expressão proteica vascular de Nox4 (NADPH oxidase 4), bem como na expressão gênica da molécula de adesão celular vascular-1 (VCAM-1, vascular cell adhesion molecule-1) e molécula de adesão intercelular-1 (ICAM-1, intercellular adhesion molecule-1) em animais deficientes de NLRP3. Houve aumento da liberação de DNA mitocondrial citosólico no pâncreas de animais diabéticos. A incubação com o DNA mitocondrial extraído do pâncreas de animais diabéticos promoveu ativação do inflamassoma em CMLV provenientes de animais C57Bl/6, mas não em CMLV provenientes de animais deficientes de NLRP3. Esta ativação foi associada ao aumento de EROs e influxo de cálcio. Essa mesma ativação também foi observada em células endoteliais. DNA mitocondrial de camundongos diabéticos também reduziu a dilatação dependente do endotélio em artérias mesentéricas, o que foi associado à geração de EROs e ativação do inflamassoma NLRP3. Pacientes diabéticos apresentaram aumento do DNA mitocondrial circulante e ativação de caspase-1 e IL-1? no soro. Os resultados demonstram que o DNA mitocondrial pancreático de animais diabéticos promove ativação, em CMLV e células endoteliais, do inflamassoma NLRP3 através do aumento no influxo de cálcio e da geração de EROs, contribuindo para o processo de disfunção endotelial. A deficiência de NLRP3 protege os animais diabéticos contra os danos vasculares inflamatórios e disfunção endotelial. / Diabetes mellitus (DM) is associated with several micro and macrovascular complications directly related to cardiovascular diseases. Prolonged exposure to hyperglycemia and insulin resistance are considered the main factors involved in these complications, which are exacerbated by endothelial dysfunction. Inflammatory mediators potentially contribute to the development of endothelial dysfunction by the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which, in turn, stimulate the transcription of pro-inflammatory factors. Specific receptors such as NLRs (NOD-like receptors) contribute to the onset of inflammatory processes by the activation of a multiprotein complex called inflammasome. The NLRP3 inflammasome regulates the activation of caspase-1 and the proteolytic processing of pro-IL-1? and pro-IL-18 precursors into mature cytokines. Several mediators, such as ROS and mitochondrial DNA activate the NLRP3 inflammasome. Considering that it is not clear whether NLRP3 and mitochondrial DNA contribute to diabetes-associated endothelial dysfunction, we hypothesized that the genetic deficiency of the NLRP3 confers resistance to vascular inflammatory processes in animals with type 1 diabetes (T1D) and that mitochondrial DNA contributes to vascular activation of NLRP3 inflammasome and endothelial dysfunction. C57B1/6 and NLRP3 knockout mice were treated with vehicle or streptozotocin to induce T1D. Functional vascular parameters were determined in resistance mesenteric arteries. Cultured vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) and endothelial cells were used to determine NLRP3 inflammasome activation by mitochondrial DNA. ROS generation was evaluated by dihydroethidium fluorescence and by chemiluminescence for lucigenin. Caspase-1 and IL-1? activation was evaluated by western blot. Calcium influx was determined by fluorescence and mitochondrial DNA by mRNA expression of mitochondrial components. Diabetes reduced endothelium-dependent vasodilation in C57B1/6, but not in NLRP3 knockout mice. Diabetic mice presented increased vascular NLRP3 receptor expression, increased caspase-1 and IL-1? activation, as well as ROS and hydrogen peroxide generation, events that were mildly observed in NLRP3 knockout mice. There was a reduction in the vascular protein expression of Nox4 (NADPH oxidase 4) as wellas in the gene expression of VCAM-1 (vascular cell adhesion molecule-1) and ICAM-1 (intercellular adhesion molecule-1) in NLRP3 knockout animals. There was an increase in cytosolic mitochondrial DNA release in pancreas from diabetic animals. Mitochondrial DNA from the pancreas of diabetic mice induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation in VSMC from C57B1/6 mice, but not in VSMC from NLRP3 knockout mice. This activation was associated with increased levels of ROS and calcium influx and was also detected in endothelial cells. Mitochondrial DNA from diabetic mice also decreased endothelium-dependent dilation in mesenteric arteries, which was associated with ROS generation and NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Diabetic patients exhibited increased serum mitochondrial DNA and caspase-1 and IL-1? activation. The results demonstrate that pancreatic mitochondrial DNA from diabetic mice activates the NLRP3 inflammasome in VSMC and endothelial cells by increasing calcium influx and ROS generation, contributing to endothelial dysfunction. NLRP3 deficiency prevents diabetes-related vascular inflammatory damage and endothelial dysfunction.

L’inflammasome NLRP3 est très impliqué dans de nombreuses pathologies inflammatoires comme la fibrose pulmonaire, la polyarthrite rhumatoïde, la goutte ou la maladie de Crohn. Cette voie de signalisation permet la libération de la cytokine pro-inflammatoire IL-1β après activation par des signaux de danger comme l’ATP ou les cristaux d’acide urique (MSU). L’objectif de cette étude est de mieux comprendre le rôle des récepteurs purinergiques dans l’activation de l’inflammasome NLRP3 dans les macrophages humains. Nous montrons ici que le MSU ou les analogues de l’ATP (ATPγS ou BzATP) induisent la libération d’IL-1β dans des macrophages pré-activés par du LPS. Ces macrophages proviennent de la différenciation de monocytes issus de poches de sang périphérique (buffy coat) obtenues à l’EFS (Rennes). Nous observons que des antagonistes du récepteur purinergique P2X7, des inhibiteurs de la cathepsine B ou de la caspase-1 et des siRNA ciblant les récepteurs P2X7 et P2Y2 sont capables de réduire la libération d’IL-1β par les macrophages activés. De plus, dans cette étude nous mettons en évidence le rôle des récepteurs purinergiques dans la sécrétion d’autres cytokines pro-inflammatoires comme l’IL-1α ou l’IL-6. Ce travail suggère que la voie d’activation de l’inflammasome NLRP3 par les récepteurs purinergiques représente une nouvelle cible thérapeutique dans le traitement des pathologies inflammatoires. / NLRP3-inflammasome pathway activation appears as the corner stone of manyinflammatory diseases including pulmonary fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis, gout and Crohn disease. This pathway is known to be activated by danger signals such as ATP or Monosodium urate (MSU) leading to the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-1β release. The aim of this study is to investigate the role of purinergic receptors in the activation of NLRP3-inflammasome pathway in human macrophages. We found here that MSU or analogs of ATP (ATPγS or BzATP) induced the release of IL-1β from LPS-primed MDM obtained from buffy coat (EFS, Rennes). We observed that purinergic P2X7 receptor antagonists, cathepsin B or caspase-1 inhibitors, siRNA targeting P2Y2R or P2X7R were able to reduce the release of IL-1β from activated macrophages. Furthermore we studied the role of purinergic receptors in pro-inflammatory cytokines release, such as IL-1α or IL-6. This study suggests that P2 receptors-NLRP3 inflammasome pathway represents a novel potential therapeutic target to control inflammation in inflammatory diseases.

Inflammation is a biological defence mechanism applied by living organisms against foreign invaders. In the response to DAMPs and PAMPs, organisms use inflammatory multi-protein complexes to fight the attackers. The most studied inflammasome proteins are NLRP3, ASC and Caspase-1. This study is aimed at understanding the role of NEK7 protein in the NLRP3 inflammasome’s activation, using CRISPR/Cas9 system. To determine the effect of CRISPR/Cas9 and transfection, mRNA expression was analyzed. The results obtained suggest that neither the transfection nor the NEK7 protein knockout have sufficiently worked. This study could not experimentally establish that NEK7 triggers NLRP3 inflammasome activation because ELISA was not conducted to verify the levels of cytokines emitted, due to there being no statistical differences between the samples. Above all, the research question in this thesis project was not answered because the instability of the ACTB reference gene negatively influenced the results. However, previous related studies conclude that NEK7 plays a crucial role in the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome.

A inibição crônica do óxido nítrico com Nw-nitroargininemethylester (L-NAME), associado à sobrecarga de sal, leva a hipertensão grave, albuminúria, glomeruloesclerose, isquemia glomerular e fibrose intersticial, caracterizando um modelo de doença renal crônica (DRC). Achados anteriores deste laboratório e de outros sugerem que a ativação de pelo menos duas vias da imunidade inata, TLR4/NF-kB e NLRP3/IL-1beta, ocorre em vários modelos experimentais de DRC e que a progressão da lesão renal pode ser atenuada com a inibição destas vias. No presente estudo, investigamos se a ativação da imunidade inata, através da via TLR4/NF-kB ou NLRP3/IL-1beta, está envolvida na patogênese da lesão renal em outro modelo de DRC, o de inibição crônica do NO com sobrecarga de sal. Ratos Munich-Wistar machos adultos receberam sobrecarga de sal (2% Na+ na dieta e 0,5% Na+ na água do bebedouro) e L-NAME (32 mg/Kg/dia) dissolvido na salina do bebedouro (Grupo HS+N) ou tratados com alopurinol (Alo, 36 mg/Kg/dia, v.o), usado como inibidor de NLRP3 (grupo HS+N+Alo) ou tratados com ditiocarbamato de pirrolidina (PDTC, 60 mg/Kg/dia, v.o), um inibidor de NF-kB (Grupo HS+N+PDTC). Após 4 semanas, os ratos HS+N desenvolveram hipertensão arterial, albuminúria e lesão renal, juntamente com inflamação renal, estresse oxidativo e ativação de ambas as vias NLRP3/IL1-beta e TLR4/NF-kB. Alo reduziu o ácido úrico renal e inibiu a via NLRP3/IL-1beta. Esses efeitos foram associados à atenuação da hipertensão arterial, albuminúria e inflamação/fibrose intersticial, mas não à lesão glomerular. O PDTC diminuiu o ácido úrico renal e inibiu as vias NLRP3 e NF-kB, promovendo um efeito antiinflamatório e nefroprotetor mais eficiente que o Alo. As vias NLRP3/IL-1beta e TLR4/NF-kB atuam paralelamente para promover lesão/inflamação renal e devem ser simultaneamente inibidas para obter nefroproteção maior nesse modelo de DRC / Nitric oxide inhibition with Nk-nitroargininemethylester (L-NAME) along with salt overload leads to severe hypertension, albuminuria, glomerulosclerosis, glomerular ischemia and collapse, together with interstitial fibrosis, characterizing a model of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Previous findings of this laboratory and elsewhere suggest that activation of at least two pathways of innate immunity, TLR4/NF-kB and NLRP3 inflammasome/IL-1beta, occurs in several experimental models of CKD, and that progression of renal injury can be slowed with inhibition of these pathways. In the present study, we investigated whether activation of innate immunity, through either the TLR4/NFkB or NLRP3/IL-1beta pathway, is involved in the pathogenesis of renal injury in yet another CKD model, chronic NO inhibition with salt overload. Adult male Munich-Wistar rats receiving L-NAME in drinking water and salt overload (Group HS+N) were treated with Allopurinol (ALLO), used as an NLRP3 inhibitor (Group HS+N+ALLO), or PyrrolidineDithiocarbamate (PDTC) a NF-kB inhibitor (Group HS+N+PDTC). After 4 wks, HS+N rats developed hypertension, albuminuria and renal injury, along with renal inflammation, oxidative stress and activation of both the NLRP3/IL1-beta and TLR4/NF-kB pathways. ALLO lowered renal uric acid and inhibited the NLRP3 pathway. These effects were associated with amelioration of hypertension, albuminuria and interstitial inflammation/fibrosis, but not glomerular injury. PDTC lowered renal uric acid and inhibited both the NLRP3 and NF-kB pathways, promoting a more efficient anti-inflammatory and nephroprotective effect than ALLO. NLRP3/IL-1beta and TLR4/NF-kB act in parallel to promote renal injury/inflammation and must be simultaneously inhibited for best nephroprotection

A inibição crônica do óxido nítrico com Nw-nitroargininemethylester (L-NAME), associado à sobrecarga de sal, leva a hipertensão grave, albuminúria, glomeruloesclerose, isquemia glomerular e fibrose intersticial, caracterizando um modelo de doença renal crônica (DRC). Achados anteriores deste laboratório e de outros sugerem que a ativação de pelo menos duas vias da imunidade inata, TLR4/NF-kB e NLRP3/IL-1beta, ocorre em vários modelos experimentais de DRC e que a progressão da lesão renal pode ser atenuada com a inibição destas vias. No presente estudo, investigamos se a ativação da imunidade inata, através da via TLR4/NF-kB ou NLRP3/IL-1beta, está envolvida na patogênese da lesão renal em outro modelo de DRC, o de inibição crônica do NO com sobrecarga de sal. Ratos Munich-Wistar machos adultos receberam sobrecarga de sal (2% Na+ na dieta e 0,5% Na+ na água do bebedouro) e L-NAME (32 mg/Kg/dia) dissolvido na salina do bebedouro (Grupo HS+N) ou tratados com alopurinol (Alo, 36 mg/Kg/dia, v.o), usado como inibidor de NLRP3 (grupo HS+N+Alo) ou tratados com ditiocarbamato de pirrolidina (PDTC, 60 mg/Kg/dia, v.o), um inibidor de NF-kB (Grupo HS+N+PDTC). Após 4 semanas, os ratos HS+N desenvolveram hipertensão arterial, albuminúria e lesão renal, juntamente com inflamação renal, estresse oxidativo e ativação de ambas as vias NLRP3/IL1-beta e TLR4/NF-kB. Alo reduziu o ácido úrico renal e inibiu a via NLRP3/IL-1beta. Esses efeitos foram associados à atenuação da hipertensão arterial, albuminúria e inflamação/fibrose intersticial, mas não à lesão glomerular. O PDTC diminuiu o ácido úrico renal e inibiu as vias NLRP3 e NF-kB, promovendo um efeito antiinflamatório e nefroprotetor mais eficiente que o Alo. As vias NLRP3/IL-1beta e TLR4/NF-kB atuam paralelamente para promover lesão/inflamação renal e devem ser simultaneamente inibidas para obter nefroproteção maior nesse modelo de DRC / Nitric oxide inhibition with Nk-nitroargininemethylester (L-NAME) along with salt overload leads to severe hypertension, albuminuria, glomerulosclerosis, glomerular ischemia and collapse, together with interstitial fibrosis, characterizing a model of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Previous findings of this laboratory and elsewhere suggest that activation of at least two pathways of innate immunity, TLR4/NF-kB and NLRP3 inflammasome/IL-1beta, occurs in several experimental models of CKD, and that progression of renal injury can be slowed with inhibition of these pathways. In the present study, we investigated whether activation of innate immunity, through either the TLR4/NFkB or NLRP3/IL-1beta pathway, is involved in the pathogenesis of renal injury in yet another CKD model, chronic NO inhibition with salt overload. Adult male Munich-Wistar rats receiving L-NAME in drinking water and salt overload (Group HS+N) were treated with Allopurinol (ALLO), used as an NLRP3 inhibitor (Group HS+N+ALLO), or PyrrolidineDithiocarbamate (PDTC) a NF-kB inhibitor (Group HS+N+PDTC). After 4 wks, HS+N rats developed hypertension, albuminuria and renal injury, along with renal inflammation, oxidative stress and activation of both the NLRP3/IL1-beta and TLR4/NF-kB pathways. ALLO lowered renal uric acid and inhibited the NLRP3 pathway. These effects were associated with amelioration of hypertension, albuminuria and interstitial inflammation/fibrosis, but not glomerular injury. PDTC lowered renal uric acid and inhibited both the NLRP3 and NF-kB pathways, promoting a more efficient anti-inflammatory and nephroprotective effect than ALLO. NLRP3/IL-1beta and TLR4/NF-kB act in parallel to promote renal injury/inflammation and must be simultaneously inhibited for best nephroprotection

Le développement de la réponse immunitaire innée de l’hôte au cours des infections respiratoires nécessite la mise en place rapide d'un réseau moléculaire et cellulaire relativement complexe ayant pour but de contrôler la croissance microbienne ainsi que permettre son éradication. Dans certaines circonstances, et malgré l’existence de vaccins et d'antibiotiques efficaces, l’infection par Streptococcus pneumoniae peut aboutir à des pathologies graves telles qu'une pneumonie, une méningite et/ou une septicémie. Ainsi, à l'heure actuelle, les maladies associées au pneumocoque sont encore loin d'être sous contrôle. Dans ce contexte, une meilleure compréhension de la réponse immunitaire innée de l’hôte contre ce pathogène est nécessaire.Mes travaux de thèse ont permis pour la première fois de mettre en évidence la fonctionnalité et la relevance biologique de l’inflammasome NLRP3 au sein des neutrophiles pulmonaires in vivo dans un modèle d’infection respiratoire par S. pneumoniae.Ainsi, de façon inattendue, les neutrophiles jouent un rôle accessoire original à des temps précoces de l’infection via leur capacité à produire de l’IL-1β. Cette synthèse protéique est possible grâce à la combinaison de 2 signaux à la fois dérivés de l’hôte (TNF-α des macrophages alvéolaires) et de la bactérie (toxine). Ces deux signaux permettent l’assemblage et l’activation de l’inflammasome NLRP3 neutrophilique. D’un point de vue translationnel, nous avons été capables de démontrer un mécanisme similaire avec des neutrophiles humains.Cette production d’IL-1β par les neutrophiles participe à l’activation des lymphocytes T γδ producteurs d’IL-17; une cytokine essentielle dans le contrôle de l’infection bactérienne via sa capacité à induire rapidement le recrutement d’une deuxième vague de neutrophiles participant directement à l’élimination et la clairance bactérienne.Sur la base de ces travaux fondamentaux, nous avons émis l’hypothèse qu’une augmentation du pool de cellules innées sécrétrices d’IL-17A pourrait avoir un effet bénéfique sur le contrôle d’une infection respiratoire à pneumocoque. Ainsi via l’administration prophylactique et locale d’IL-7, nous avons été capables d’augmenter la fréquence et le nombre de lymphocytes innés producteurs d’IL-17A résultant en un meilleur contrôle de la charge bactérienne pathogène associée à une augmentation du recrutement neutrophilique. A ce stade, ces résultats encourageants, nous pousse à mieux comprendre les mécanismes moléculaires et cellulaires associés à cet effet dans l’éventualité de proposer à terme une nouvelle approche thérapeutique dans le contrôle des infections respiratoires pulmonaires basée sur la manipulation de la biologie de l’IL-7. / The mounting of an appropriate host innate immune response in the lungs requires the rapid establishment of a complex cellular and molecular networking that allows the containment and clearance of pathogens during respiratory infections. Both neutrophils and γδT cells are central players in the host response during mucosal infections. Using a model of invasive pneumococcal disease, we illustrated a role for Interleukin-17A in controlling neutrophil recruitment, bacterial loads and survival. Following Streptococcus pneumoniae infection, we defined pulmonary γδT cells, especially the lung resident Vγ6Vδ1+ subset, as the primary source of IL-17A in an IL-23/IL- 1β-dependent manner. Using gene-targeted mice, we demonstrated that γδT cells largely contributed to neutrophilia and to the control of the pathology. Furthermore, we now defined a second and unexpected early role for neutrophils as accessory cells in γδT17 cell activation through IL-1β secretion. Neutrophil-derived IL-1β was dependent on NLRP3 inflammasome activity and required alveolar macrophage-secreted TNF-α for priming and bacterial pneumolysin for NLRP3- dependent caspase-1 activation. This report thus brings to light the sequential molecular/cellular events leading to γδT17 cell activation and highlights the existence of a biologically relevant and fully functional NLRP3 inflammasome in pulmonary neutrophils that regulates a key immune axis in the development of protective innate response to respiratory bacterial infection.Based on these observations, we hypothesized that an increase in the pool of IL-17A-producing innate-like T lymphocytes might play a protective role during pneumococcal infection. As recently suggested, we demonstrated that intranasal IL-7/M25 complex administration into naïve mice allowed the expansion of the cellular pool of innate immune cells presenting a Th17-like phenotype in the lungs especially T cells. Moreover, we showed during S. pneumoniae infection that prophylactic IL-7/M25 treatment increased the capacity of Vγ6Vδ1+ T cells to produce IL-17A. Interestingly, this phenotype led to higher neutrophil recruitment and a better control of bacterial burden in the lungs as well as systemic dissemination. Thus, we report a critical role of IL-7 in creating an IL-17-enriched microenvironment which improves the early development of host innate immune response to respiratory bacterial infection. This observation might pave the way to the development of future innovative cytokine/cell-based strategies against Streptococcus pneumoniae.

La pandémie de l'obésité entraine une augmentation de la prévalence des maladies chroniques du foie ou stéatopathies métaboliques (NAFLD). Le spectre des NAFLD va de la stéatose caractérisée par une accumulation de lipides dans le foie à la stéatohépatite (NASH) associant une inflammation, de la mort hépatocytaire et de la fibrose. Lors de l'obésité, l'élévation de signaux de dangers métaboliques perturbe les fonctions du réticulum endoplasmique (RE) essentielles pour l’homéostasie cellulaire. Les perturbations sont transmises par 3 senseurs : IRE1α, ATF6 et PERK pour activer une réponse adaptative. Si ce stress est sévère ou devient chronique, la cellule enclenchera une réponse terminale apoptotique. La protéine Bax Inhibitor-1 (BI-1) pourrait jouer un rôle hépatoprotecteur en inhibant l’hyperactivation de la voie de signalisation IRE1α.En combinant des études chez l’homme et dans des modèles animaux, l’objectif de cette étude était de mieux caractériser l'activation chronique du stress du RE dans les NAFLD. Ce travail a émis l’hypothèse qu’une déficience en BI-1 entrainerait l’activation soutenue de la voie IRE1α qui serait responsable de la transition de la stéatose à la NASH. Cette étude s'intéresse au dialogue potentiel entre le stress du RE et l’activation de l'inflammasome NLRP3, qui induit la sécrétion des cytokines pro-inflammatoires (IL-1β, IL-18) grâce aux caspases pro-inflammatoires (caspase-1, caspase-4/11). L’utilisation d’un inhibiteur global du stress du RE ou des inhibiteurs pharmacologiques spécifiques à la voie IRE1α améliorerait les caractéristiques pathophysiologiques de la NASH et pourrait ouvrir de nouvelles perspectives thérapeutiques. / Due to the obesity pandemic, the last decades have been marked by a constantly increasing prevalence of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD). NAFLD covers a spectrum of hepatic disorders ranging from steatosis, characterized by the ectopic accumulation of lipids in the liver, to steatohepatitis (NASH), featuring inflammation, hepatocellular death and fibrosis. During obesity, an increase in metabolic danger signals leads to disrupted endoplasmic reticulum (ER) function, essential for cellular homeostasis. The resulting ER stress activates a signaling network involving three sensors: IRE1α, ATF6 and PERK to enforce adaptive programs. If this stress is severe or becomes chronic, the cell will trigger a terminal apoptotic response. The protein Bax Inhibitor-1 (BI-1), as a negative endogenous regulator of the IRE1α signaling pathway in the liver, may play a hepatoprotective role.By combining data from obese patients with liver complications and experimental approaches in mice, this thesis aimed to better characterize the chronic activation of ER stress in NAFLD pathogenesis. This work also emitted the hypothesis that a deficiency in BI-1 leads to unrestrained IRE1α signaling that may be responsible for the steatosis to NASH transition. This study further investigated the potential dialogue between ER stress and the activation the NLRP3 inflammasome, which induces the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-18) by activating pro-inflammatory caspases (caspase-1, caspase-4/11). The administration of a broad spectrum ER stress inhibitor or specific inhibitors of IRE1α improved the pathophysiological features of NASH and may open novel therapeutic perspectives.