Cette thèse présente une étude des propriétés de transport à basses températures de matériaux hybrides composés de nano-clusters de métaux supraconducteurs (Sn et Pb) auto-assemblés à la surface d'une feuille de graphène. L'auto-assemblage du métal réalise un réseau bi-dimensionnel désordonné de jonctions Josephson. La caractérisation des propriétés supraconductrices révèle une transition de type 'BKT' avec une température de transition dépendant de la morphologie de la surface. Les propriétés supraconductrices de ce système sont fortement influencées par la grille arrière, qui contrôle la résistance dans l'état normal du graphène. Le résultat le plus marquant de cette thèse a été obtenu en utilisant du graphène désordonné. La présence de défauts structuraux dans la maille de graphène induit un régime de localisation forte à basses températures. En faisant varier le voltage de grille, la résistance de tels échantillons peut varier de 3 ordres de grandeurs. Cette grande dynamique a été mise à contribution pour la réalisation d'une transition de phase supraconducteur-isolant dans des échantillons décorés à l'étain. L'étude de cette transition de phase quantique révèle un comportement de type percolatif et une résistivité universelle prédite par la théorie à la transition. Enfin, un travail préliminaire visant à réaliser des résonateurs mécaniques supraconducteurs à l'aide des ces matériaux hybrides est également présenté. / This thesis presents a study of the low temperature transport properties of hybrid materials made of superconducting metals (Sn and Pb) nano-clusters self-assembled onto the surface of a graphene sheet. The self-assembly realizes a two-dimensional disordered array of Josephson junctions. Characterization of the superconducting properties reveals a transition of the 'BKT' kind, with a transition temperature that depends on surface morphology. The superconducting properties are strongly affected by the gate voltage, which controls the normal state resistance of the graphene sheet. The main result of this thesis was obtained using disordered graphene. The presence of structural defects in the graphene lattice induces a regime of strong localization at low temperatures. Upon varying the gate voltage, the resistance of such samples can change by 3 orders of magnitude. Taking advantage of the large dynamics offered by the gate voltage, we have induced a superconductor-insulator transition in Sn-decorated samples. The study of that quantum phase transition reveals a percolating behavior near the threshold and the universal value of resistivity predicted by theory at the transition. Finally, a preliminary work aiming at using such an hybrid material to realize superconducting nano-electro-mechanical resonators is presented.

Metallische Nanostäbe mit einer Länge im Mikrometer-Bereich wirken als Antennen für infrarotes Licht: Indem unter Lichteinfall eine kollektive Schwingung der Leitungselektronen angeregt wird (ein sogenanntes Plasmon), wird das elektrische Feld an den Stabenden stark konzentriert. Besonders starke Feldkonzentrationen treten auf, wenn zwei Antennenarme durch eine schmale Lücke getrennt sind (Dimerantenne). Somit können die Antennen Licht-Materie-Wechselwirkungen -- wie beispielsweise die Absorption infraroten Lichtes von Molekülen -- verstärken. Dieses als oberflächenverstärkte Infrarotabsorption (SEIRA) bezeichnete Phänomen ist sehr nützlich, um Signale in der Infrarotspektroskopie zu verstärken. Diese Arbeit widmet sich der effizienten Herstellung von metallischen Nanostäben für SEIRA. Im ersten Schwerpunktthema werden Dimerantennen, die per Elektronenstrahllithographie (EBL) hergestellt wurden und eine auflösungsbegrenzte Lücke aufweisen, durch eine photochemische Reduktion von Metallsalzkomplexen nachträglich vergrößert. Dadurch verringert sich die Lückengröße und erreicht Werte deutlich unter der Auflösungsgrenze der EBL. Es wird gezeigt, dass diese photochemische Abscheidung die IR-optischen Eigenschaften der Dimerantennen durch plasmonische Kopplung entscheidend verändert. Zudem steigt die Infrarotabsorption von in der Lücke befindlichen Molekülen mit sinkender Lückengröße. Im zweiten Schwerpunktthema liegt der Fokus auf der günstigen Fabrikation einer Vielzahl von IR-Antennen in einem parallelen Prozess. Dabei werden poröse Template aus anodisiertem Aluminiumoxid (AAO) als Negativ für die herzustellenden Metallstäbe benutzt. Es wird zuerst gezeigt, dass die Poren des Templates durch die photochemische Reduktion von Goldsalzkomplexen befüllt werden können. Für eine gezielte Einstellung der Stäbchenlänge und die Generierung einer nanoskaligen Lücke wird weiterhin die elektrochemische Befüllung der Template untersucht. Die hiermit hergestellten IR-Antennen werden vereinzelt, auf ein Substrat aufgetragen und hinsichtlich ihrer Struktur und ihrer IR-optischen Eigenschaften charakterisiert. Die Vor- und Nachteile der untersuchten Herstellungsmethoden und ihre Eignung für die Fabrikation von IR-Antennen für SEIRA werden diskutiert. / Metallic nanorods with lengths in the micrometer regime act as antennas for infrared light: As incident light excites a collective oscillation of the conduction electrons (a so-called plasmon), the electric field is concentrated at the rod ends. In case two antenna arms are separated by a small gap (dimer antenna), a particularly high field concentration occurs. Thereby the antennas are capable of enhancing light-matter-interaction -- for example the absorption of infrared light by molecules. This phenomenon, termed as surface enhanced infrared absorption (SEIRA), is very useful to enhance absorption signals in infrared spectroscopy. This thesis attends to the efficient fabrication of metallic nanorods for SEIRA. The first topic in focus is the manipulation of dimer antennas fabricated by electron beam lithography (EBL), featuring a gap of resolution-limited size. By applying a photochemical reduction of metal salt complexes in solution, the dimer arms are subsequently enlarged. Thereby the gap size is reduced and reaches values clearly below the resolution limit of EBL. It is shown that the IR optical properties of dimer antennas dramatically change during photochemical metal deposition. This is due to plasmonic coupling. Additionally, the absorption of infrared light by molecules located in the gap increases with decreasing gap size. The second topic in focus is the cheap fabrication of a large number of IR antennas in a parallel process. Here, porous templates of anodized aluminum oxide (AAO) are used as a negative for the metal rods to be fabricated. Firstly, it is shown that the pores of the template can be filled by photochemical reduction of gold salt complexes. For a targeted adjustment of the rod lengths and the generation of a nanoscale gap, secondly, the electrochemical filling of acsu AAO is investigated. The IR antennas prepared by this method are extracted from the template, transferred to a substrate, and individually characterized in terms of their structure and IR optical properties. Advantages and drawbacks of the fabrication methods investigated in this work as well as their applicability to the fabrication of IR antennas for SEIRA are being discussed.

The fabrication of zone plate lenses that are used for focusing X-rays relies on nanofabrication techniques such as e-beam lithography, reactive ion etching, and electroplating. The circular grating-like zone plate pattern can have a smallest half-period, a so-called zone width, of down to 20 nm while it also needs to have a height that is 5 to 10 times the zone width to have good diffraction efficiency. This high aspect ratio structuring is a very challenging field of nanofabrication. This diploma project has focused on improving the process step of fabricating the electroplating mold by cryo-cooling the polymer during the reactive ion etching with O2. The low temperature causes passivation of the sidewalls of the mold during etching which results in a more ideal rectangular profile of the high aspect ratio plating mold. By etching at -100 °C, structures with highly vertical sidewalls and no undercut were realized. The experiments showed that there is a tradeoff between the anisotropy of the zone profile and the formation rate of polymer residue, so-called RIE grass. Through a proper choice of process parameters the grass could be completely removed without introducing any undercut. / QC 20100414

<p>Nanotechnology has experienced a tremendous rise in the last decade. The synthesis of nanomaterials of defined structure and controlled properties is one of the most challenging part. Solution processing bottom-up fabrication techniques enables the facile synthesis of low dimension and ordered structures with low cost through the self-assembly of basic building blocks. Biotemplating has become an emerging field in which natural biomolecular objects are utilized for creating functional, hierarchical, controlled patterned structures with nanometric precision. It is a capital effective, eco-friendly and energy-efficient synthetic process. Viral biotemplating has shown great potential in electronics, environmental and biomedical devices. In recent years, in-planta produced Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) and its variants have been used to produce metal nanorods and nanowires of monodisperse structures under mild conditions without the use of harsh chemical treatments although there remains much to be understood. Mass production of biotemplate, programming of viral particles of desired functionalities, manipulation for biomineralized metal materials of good quality have not been sufficiently studied to allow for directed synthesis. The fundamental studies on platform development for viral biotemplate production, design of viral proteins carrying engineered properties, and the hydrothermal synthesis of biotemplated metal nanomaterials, which create great uniformity and high coverage are of interest in this dissertation. Three experimental studies are outlined.<br></p><p><br></p><p>A novel virus biotemplate, Barley stripe mosaic virus (BSMV) virus-like particle is designed and engineered through genetic engineering. By fusing the Origin of Assembly from TMV to the transcript encoding BSMV capsid protein, the self-assembly of BSMV-VLP nanorod from microbial-based protein expression system was achieved for the first time. An alternate platform for viral particle production has been developed. Optimization of VLP expression, purification and processing conditions are performed. This developed alternative E. coli production platforms offer unique opportunities for genetic engineering and faster protein expression; therefore, the development of our system enables rapid design-build-test cycles for the engineering and production of BSMV-VLPs with desired properties. Results in this project shows the power of genetic engineering and serves as a springboard for genetic engineering of the VLPs.<br></p><p><br></p><p>Programming on BSMV-VLP is further used to decouple the VLP assembly into governing internal molecular interactions. To drive the nucleic acid free helical BSMV-VLP rod assembly and further increase the stability of capsid proteins, an identification of Caspar Carboxylate cluster in BSMV is performed. Various carboxylate residues were selected through protein crystal structure and examined systematically through experimental work. By introducing mutations on selected residues, the intersubunit carboxylate interaction of the proteins was significantly altered, resulting in an in vivo production of nucleic-acid free BSMV-VLP assembly for the first time. The change in interactions leads to increased stability of the modified VLP, enabling the formation of longer nanorods with lengths over one micrometer. Moreover, both wild-type and mutated BSMV-VLPs were shown to have great structural stability across a wide range of pHs. Overall, we exhibit experimental identification to systematically probe the key carboxylate interactions to increase the stability of proteins and drive RNA-free BSMV-VLP assembly. This project greatly expands the potential usefulness of the engineered BSMV-VLP biotemplates for a wide variety of applications.<br></p><p><br></p><p>Finally, to demonstrate the versatile uses of BSMV-VLP in biotemplating, the new biotemplate was utilized to expand understandings on the directed synthesis of metal nanostructures. By using the hydrothermal synthesis, VLPs were successfully utilized to synthesize monometallic palladium nanorods with a wide range of length scales. The VLP-mediated nanorods are more uniformly and fully-covered than the ones synthesized with in planta-produced BSMV virion. Besides, the synthesis shows an effective control over the metal nanorod diameter. The capability of BSMV-VLP was readily expanded from the synthesis of monometallic nanorods to bimetallic hybrid. In the absence of an exogenous reducing agent, mineralization of platinum, gold and copper was successfully demonstrated on the VLP. It is attributed to lower reduction barrier introduced by already-deposited palladium nanoparticles which serve as nucleation sites for subsequent metal reduction. The formation of bimetallic complexes was further supported by STEM, EDS and XPS analysis evidenced the presences of multiple metals. Overall, BSMV-VLP-mediated biotemplating using the hydrothermal synthesis has been confirmed to be a promising and feasible approach to create organic-inorganic complex nanocomposite.<br></p><p><br></p><p>Lastly, to move toward an application, the synthesized Pd nanorods coated with full coverage and great uniformity of nanoparticles were utilized as an exciting hydrogen sensing material. The developed hydrogen sensing system using a quartz crystal microbalance shows a fast response toward hydrogen as well as the ability of hydrogen detection and quantification of the adsorption capacity. This study serves as an entry point and opens up enormous possibility for next-generation of Pd-virus hybrid hydrogen sensors.<br></p><p><br></p><p>Taken together, this dissertation has demonstrated the engineering and production of a novel BSMV virus-like particle bacterial system. This alternative platform and developed parameter space for VLP production is genetically tractable and requires significantly shorter processing duration for large-scale and mass production. The BSMV-VLP biotemplated metal nanomaterials present great qualities and controllable dimensions. This approach has explored the synthetic palette and opened up enormous possibilities in the bottom-up nanofabrication of versatile and tunable organic-inorganic nanoscaled complex and would facilitate future engineering industrial applications.<br></p>

<p>Rare-earth ions (REIs) in solids are attractive optical centers due to their stable optical transitions and long lifetimes. Miniaturizing solid-state devices incorporated with REIs as quantum centers can play a key role in the implementation of future multiplexed quantum optical networks. Among the solid-state host materials for REIs, the Dissertation specifically studies silicon nitride (SiN) and crystalline lithium niobate (LN) materials. </p> <p><br></p> <p>SiN and Si are a CMOS-compatible material, and leveraging the well-developed technologies from the microelectronics industry is important for practical purposes because the cost of fabrication can be significantly reduced. Also, a recent study showed that the inhomogeneous broadening of Er-doped crystalline Si can be as low as 1GHz. Moreover, low-loss waveguide and high Q resonators were reported, making it a promising host for strong light-atom interactions. </p> <p><br></p> <p>On the other hand, LN is a promising host material for REIs due to its unique piezoelectric, electro-optic, nonlinear, and acousto-optic properties. Until recently, direct etching of LN has not been realized. But recently developed lithium niobate on insulator (LNOI) platform and direct LN etching techniques made it possible to fabricate low loss and strong confinement waveguides. Furthermore, LN has been used for quantum light storage and on-chip photon generation and wavelength conversion. Motivated by these recent advances and the interesting properties of LN, the Dissertation investigates thin-film crystalline LN. </p> <p><br></p> <p>In this dissertation, the methods and processes of fabricating long waveguides and ring resonators in 1)silicon nitride and 2)lithium niobate are introduced and the study of optical characterizations of Yb3+ ions in two different solid-state host materials are presented, specifically including photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy, lifetime measurement, absorption and other characterization of light-atom interactions. </p> <p><br></p> <p>Furthermore, a study of Tm3+ ion arrays in thin-film LN is presented, specifically including the PL lifetime comparison between the periodically ordered sample and the randomly ordered sample and the scattering/reflection measurement from periodic ion arrays, both indicating the early evidence of cooperative effects of arrays in solids. Also, the theory of collective emission from atomic arrays is presented. Finally, I propose future plans to improve the fabrication process in these materials and possible future research directions based on the Dissertation.</p>

Ce travail consiste à l’utilisation de la technique d'écriture directe par laser par absorption à un photon pour fabriquer des nanostructures polymères et métalliques en vue d’applications en photonique et en plasmonique. Il est démontré que la température du matériau est augmentée localement et temporellement grâce à une excitation locale d’un laser continu dont la longueur d’onde se situe dans la bande d’absorption du matériau. Un modèle théorique simple a été étudié pour expliquer l'effet photothermique local et temporel, qui est déterminé par le spot de focalisation du système d'écriture directe par laser. En utilisant une résine photosensible positive, il a été démontré que les structures photoniques 1D et 2D peuvent être réalisées avec une taille aussi petite que 57 nm et avec une périodicité aussi courte que 300 nm, ce qui sont beaucoup plus petites par rapport à la limite de diffraction du système optique utilisé. Les structures photoniques 3D ont également été fabriqués pour la première fois avec une photorésine positive, permettant d’envisager de nombreuses nouvelles applications. Les structures polymères fabriquées ont été démontrés très utiles pour obtenir des nanostructures plasmoniques par soit une combinaison de la méthode d’évaporation thermique d'un film d'or et le procédé lift-off, ou par une combinaison de la méthode de pulvérisation cathodique d'une couche d'or et la méthode de recuit thermique. Les nanostructures d'or fabriquées ont été caractérisées expérimentalement et leurs propriétés optiques ont été théoriquement confirmées par des calculs FDTD. En outre, il a été démontré que les nanostructures d'or, avec les tailles et formes contrôlables, peut être réalisées en une seule étape par la technique d’écriture directe par laser grâce à l'effet thermique optiquement induit. Certaines applications de ces nanostructures métalliques sont proposées et étudiés, par exemple, le capteur d'indice de réfraction, le stockage des données et l'impression couleur. / This work focuses on the investigation of direct laser writing technique for fabrication of desired nanostructures on positive photoresist and metallic materials. The photothermal and photochemical processes deriving from one-photon absorption mechanism, which occurs when materials are excited by a green continuous-wave laser, enabled a scalable and practical approach for producing nanostructures on demand. A simple heat model was proposed to explain the local and temporal thermal effect, induced by a tiny focusing spot of the direct laser writing system. Using a positive photoresist, it was demonstrated that 1D and 2D photonic structures can be realized with a feature size as small as 57 nm and with a periodicity as short as 300 nm, which are much smaller than the diffraction limit of the used optical system. 3D photonic structures were also fabricated for the first time with a positive photoresist, paving the way to numerous applications. The fabricated polymeric structures have been demonstrated as excellent templates to obtain plasmonic nanostructures by a combination of thermal evaporation of gold film and lift-off process and/or by a combination of the sputtering of a thin gold layer and thermal annealing methods. Fabricated gold nanoarrays were experimentally characterized and their optical properties were theoretically confirmed by FDTD calculations. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that any gold nanostructure, with controllable size and shape, can be realized in one-step by direct laser writing technique thanks to the optically induced thermal effect. Some applications of these metallic nanostrucures are proposed, for instance, refractive index sensor, data storage, and color printing.

La nanotechnologie a pris un rôle clé dans le développement technologique actuel de façon extrêmement grande et interdisciplinaire. L'utilisation de nanofils dans la construction de structures/dispositifs plus complexe peut être entrevue en raison de sa polyvalence. Comprendre la fabrication de nanofils et être capable de les caractériser est extrêmement important pour ce développement. Des dispositifs à base de nanofils semi-conducteurs et ferromagnétiques ont été étudiés dans cette thèse, abordant les techniques de croissance et d'adressage pour des caractérisations électroniques et structurelles, et pour des développements à grande échelle pour des applications industrielles. Les nanofils de cobalt ont été électro déposés à différents pH permettant d'associer le pH de la solution à la caractérisation de la structure cristalline. Les nanofils de semiconducteurs ont été crus par CVD. L'adressage et l'alignement des nanofils ont été faits par diélectrophorèse couplé avec l'assemblage capillaire. Pour caractériser les nanofils, des techniques de lithographie optique et électronique ont été utilisés pour la fabrication des contacts. Une étude d'interface matériaux semiconducteurs/siliciure a été réalisée démontrant que les valeurs de barrière Schottky sont différentes entre des nanofils de silicium et des matériaux massifs. Dans le cas de nanofils InAs la barrière est imperceptible et il a été constaté que le fil de ZnO était de type p. Les applications ont démontrées différents dispositifs, tels que les transistors, les vannes de spin, capteurs de gaz, de l'humidité et de la lumière. Dans le cadre de vannes de spin, la caractérisation de l'interface semiconducteur/ferromagnétique a permis d'associer la valeur de la hauteur de barrière de Schottky à l'épaisseur de SiO2, qui agit comme une barrière à effet tunnel. Grâce aux mesures de transistors à effet de champ (FET) , nous avons pu identifier le type de porteurs de charge pour chaque matériau, extraire leur mobilité, la tension de seuil... Les capteurs ont été fabriqués à base de nanofils en Si, InAs, et ZnO, afin d'être utilisés comme capteurs de lumière, l'humidité et les gaz. Cette thèse propose une amélioration des technologiques actuelles d'adressage de nanostructures et l'utilisation des propriétés à l'échelle nanométrique pour des dispositifs plus efficaces et une large applicabilité, fournissant la base pour de futures études et les réalisations pratiques des nanosciences et des nanotechnologies. / Nanotechnology is at the center of nowadays technologies in an increasing and very interdisciplinary manner. Sticking together the manufacturing and characterization of the nano-devices and their constituent nanostructures are keys for the development of the field. This thesis covered studies of ferromagnetic (Co) and semiconductors nanowires (Si, InAs and ZnO) based nanodevices. Nanowires growing and correct addressing techniques were studied for measurements and characterizations set ups and for large-scale industrial applications possibilities. The growing techniques were electrodeposition and CVD. Different pHs were used for the solutions in the case of the Co nanowires growing that were, than, connected by means of electronic lithography. The resulting measurements enabled us to associate the pH to the crystalline structure characterization. The nanowires addressing was made using the dieletrophoresis technique coupled to capillary assembly and also by contacting the isolated nanowire by means of electronic lithography. The contact made in the nanowire was favored by the silicidation technique. For this two different materials, Pt and Ni, compatible with the CMOS technology. A deep study of the interface semiconductor/silicidation was performed and the Schottky Barrier of Si nanowires was verified to be smaller than the barrier in the bulk form of Si. In the InAs nanowires case an imperceptible barrier was found. The ZnO nanowires were found to be of p-type. The following devices were manufactured: top/back-gate transistors, lateral spin valves (local and non-local valves) and multilayer-nanowires based spin valves (local valves). The semiconductor nanowires sensors (gas, humidity and luminosity) were also manufactured and tested. In the spin valves context the interface semiconductor/ferromagnetic material was studied in order to associate the Schottky Barrier height to the SiO2 width that acts as a tunnel barrier. From the semiconductors nanowires based field effect transistors (FETs) measurements it was possible to verify the charge carriers type for each different material, to extract its mobility, threshold voltage and others. The manufactured sensors were made of Si, InAs and ZnO nanowires and the main aim was to use them as gas, humidity and luminosity sensors. The ZnO nanowires have been seen to be light sensitive whereas the Si and InAs nanowires responded to the presence of humidity and of pollutant gases, e.g. the NO2.

No description available.

We investigate the resonant characteristics of superconducting meandering nanowires to design a nonlinear kinetic inductance traveling-wave parametric amplifier. The devices are patterned out of 15 nm thick NbTiN films. They consist of a coplanar waveguide, that shrinks into 100 nm wide meandering nanowires. For a total kinetic inductance of ∼1 μH, our simulations show that these structures behave as resonators with fundamental mode frequency around 1 GHz and a phase velocity of the signal as low as c/1000. The resonance peaks correspond to the presence of current antinodes within the meandering structure. Samples were fabricated at the Albanova Nanolab facility and measured in a sample-in-vacuum dipstick at 300 mK. Frequency sweeps in the 0.1-10 GHz range confirm the presence of these resonance peaks. In addition, we investigate the current nonlinearity of our devices. Analysis of the temperature dependence of the resonant peaks revealed the critical temperature of the film, TC = 14.0 ± 0.5 K. The dispersion relations showed that the device impedance exceeds the resistance quantum RQ = 6.5 kΩ when close to resonance or below 87 MHz. A second design was realized in order to reduce the device’s characteristic impedance to ≈ 50 Ω. This design, accomodating a micro stripline, embedded a significantly longer nanowire, with a total kinetic inductance ∼10 μH. Measurements showed a dramatically reduced impedance to ≈ 700 Ω, but still not matched to 50 Ω, giving rise to a dense frequency comb of standing modes in the 0-3 GHz bandwidth, with a constant spacing of ≈ 45 MHz. / Vi undersöker egenskaperna hos supraledande slingrande nanotrådar i syfte att designa en ickelinjär kinetisk induktans parametrisk förstärkare. Våra prov är mönstrade ur 15 nm tjocka NbTiN-filmer. De består av en koplanär vågledare som krymper till 100 nm breda slingrande nanotrådar. Med en sammanlagd kinetisk induktans på ∼1 μH visar våra simuleringar att dessa strukturer beter sig som resonatorer med en funda- mental modfrekvens runt 1 GHz och en fashastighet för signalen så låg som c/1000. Resonanserna motsvarar närvaron av strömantinoder inom den slingrande strukturen. Proverna tillverkades i Albanovas Nanolab och mättes i en prov-i-vakuum-sticka runt 300 mK. Frekvenssvepen i området 0,1-10 GHz bekräftar förekomsten av dessa res- onanser. Dessutom undersökte vi den strömberoende ickelinjäriteten i våra enheter. Analys av resonansernas temperaturberoende ger ett värde på filmens kritiska temper- atur, TC = 14.0 ± 0.5 K. Dispersionsförhållandena visade att provens impedans över- stiger resistanskvantumet RQ = 6, 5 kΩ nära resonanserna. En andra design realiserades för att reducera provens karakteristiska impedans till ≈ 50 Ω. Denna design, med en mikrostripline, har en betydligt längre totaltsträcka med en sammanlagd kinetisk induk- tans på ∼10 μH. Mätningarna visade en dramatiskt reducerad impedans på ≈ 700 Ω, men inte till det matchade värdet på 50 Ω, vilket gav upphov till en tät frekvenskam inom bandbredden 0- 3 GHz, med ett avstånd på ≈ 45 MHz mellan resonanserna.

Since the arrival of DNA nanotechnology nearly 40 years ago, the field has progressed from its beginnings of envisioning rather simple DNA structures having a branched, multi-strand architecture into creating beautifully complex structures comprising hundreds or even thousands of unique strands, with the possibility to exactly control the positions down to the molecular level. While the earliest construction methodologies, such as simple Holliday junctions or tiles, could reasonably be designed on pen and paper in a short amount of time, the advent of complex techniques, such as DNA origami or DNA bricks, require software to reduce the time required and propensity for human error within the design process. Where available, readily accessible design software catalyzes our ability to bring techniques to researchers in diverse fields and it has helped to speed the penetration of methods, such as DNA origami, into a wide range of applications from biomedicine to photonics. Here, we review the historical and current state of CAD software to enable a variety of methods that are fundamental to using structural DNA technology. Beginning with the first tools for predicting sequence-based secondary structure of nucleotides, we trace the development and significance of different software packages to the current state-of-the-art, with a particular focus on programs that are open source.