Le cancer de l’ovaire est un cancer ayant un taux de décès particulièrement élevé. Les patientes répondent habituellement bien aux traitements chimiothérapeutiques mais la majorité connaîtront une rechute. Plusieurs mécanismes ont été identifiés comme partiellement responsables du développement de la résistance clinique à la chimiothérapie, dont la réparation plus efficace de l’ADN par la réparation par excision de nucléotides (NER). L'un des agents communément utilisés pour traiter ce cancer est le cisplatine, qui induit des dommages à l'ADN réparés par le NER. Une étude précédente de notre laboratoire a démontré qu'une déficience uniquement en phase S de la réparation par le NER peut se produire. Cette déficience est aussi dépendante de la kinase ATR. Nous avons choisi de déterminer si cette déficience est présente dans certains cas de cancer de l’ovaire et si cette déficience joue un rôle sur la résistance à la chimiothérapie. Nos objectifs sont donc : (i) vérifier la présence de cette déficience dans diverses lignées isolées du cancer de l’ovaire ; (ii) vérifier si le traitement chimiothérapeutique par des agents à base de platine peut favoriser la survie de cellules ayant une meilleure capacité de réparation par le NER; (iii) mesurer la sensibilité de ces lignées au cisplatine et vérifier si ceci corrèle avec leur capacité de réparation par le NER en phase S; (iv) déterminer si cette déficience est causée par la kinase ATR dans ces lignées. Nous avons déterminé qu’une déficience importante de la réparation par le GG-NER en phase S est présente dans de nombreuses lignées. De plus, des lignées isolées d’une même patiente pré-chimiothérapie et post-chimiothérapie montrent une augmentation significative de leur capacité de réparation par le GG-NER en phase S, suggérant un rôle de ce processus dans la résistance à la chimiothérapie. Nous avons aussi démontré qu’il y a une corrélation entre la capacité de réparation en phase S par le GG-NER et la sensibilité des lignées au cisplatine. Toutefois, nos résultats suggèrent que cette déficience n’est pas causée par ATR dans ces lignées puisque la phosphorylation de H2AX en réponse aux UV est similaire dans toutes les lignées. En plus d’un important apport fondamental, cette étude permettra d’étudier un potentiel mécanisme de résistance aux traitements chimiothérapeutiques dans le cancer de l’ovaire humain. / Ovarian cancer is one of the most lethal cancers. Patients usually respond very well to chemotherapy but most will eventually relapse. Many molecular processes have already been shown to influence chemotherapy resistance, including more efficient DNA repair by nucleotide excision repair. One commonly used drug for the treatment of ovarian cancer is cisplatin, a drug inducing lesions on DNA that can be repaired by NER. A previous study in our lab has shown that NER can be deficient specifically in S-phase. This effect is dependent on the kinase ATR. Thus, we chose to explore the possibility that this deficiency has an impact on resistance to cisplatin. Our objectives are: (i) to study the repair profile by NER in S-phase in ovarian cancer cell lines; (ii) to test if chemotherapeutic treatment can modulate nucleotide excision repair in cell lines by selecting cells that repair damage by NER more efficiently; (iii) to measure the sensitivity of these cell lines to cisplatin; (iv) to test if this deficiency can be attributed to ATR signalling. We show in this study that many ovarian cancer cell lines have an important defect in GG-NER specifically in S-phase. Pairs of cell lines that were isolated before and after chemotherapeutic treatment show an increase in their GG-NER efficiency in S-phase, suggesting a role for this enzymatic process in chemotherapy resistance. Also, we have found a correlation between the efficiency of GG-NER in S-phase and the sensitivity to cisplatin in the cell lines used in our study. However, the defect in GG-NER in S-phase in these ovarian cancer cell lines doesn’t seem to be due to ATR because the phosphorylation of H2AX in response to UV is equivalent between the different cell lines. This study will have an impact on our understanding of the fundamental aspects of DNA repair but could also provide insights on a potential novel mechanism of resistance to chemotherapy.

La réparation par excision de nucléotides (NER) garantit l'intégrité du génome lors de l'exposition aux rayons UV. Après irradiation aux UV, un des premiers problèmes rencontrés par la cellule est l'arrêt général de la transcription dû au blocage de l'ARN polymérase II (ARNP2) au niveau des lésions UV. Pour régler ce problème, le NER possède une voie de réparation spécifiquement couplée à la transcription (TCR). Les connaissances concernant le NER ont été obtenu via des études sur la transcription par l'ARNP2. Cependant, dans les cellules à fort métabolisme, plus de 60% de la transcription correspond à la transcription, dans le nucléole, de l'ADN ribosomique (ADNr) par l'ARN polymérase I (ARNP1). De nombreuses protéines sont absence du nucléole, c'est pourquoi certains processus nucléaires ne peuvent avoir lieu dans cette structure. Afin d ‘être répliqué et réparé, l'ADNr se déplace à la périphérie du nucléole. Malgré l'importance de la transcription par l'ARNP1, la réparation de l'ADNr a été peu étudiée chez l'homme. De plus, à notre connaissance, aucune étude ne s'est penchée sur le mécanisme moléculaire du déplacement de l'ADNr à la périphérie du nucléole. Notre étude démontre l'implication de la TCR dans la réparation de l'ADNr après lésions UV induites. De plus, nos recherches ont démontré que l'ARNP1 reste accrochée à l'ADNr et sont tous les deux délocalisés à la périphérie du nucléole après irradiation aux UV. Enfin, nous avons identifié l'actin et la moysine I nucléaires comme facteurs protéiques nécessaire à cette délocalisation / Nucleotide excision repair (NER) guarantees genome integrity and proper cellular functions against UV-induced DNA damage. After UV irradiation, one of the first burden cells have to cope with is a general transcriptional block caused by the stalling of RNA polymerase II (RNAP2) onto distorting UV lesions. To insure UV lesions repair specifically on transcribed genes, NER is coupled with transcription in an extremely organized pathway known as Transcription-Coupled Repair (TCR). Most of the knowledge about TCR has been gathered from RNAP2 transcription. However, in highly metabolic cells, more than 60% of total cellular transcription results from ribosomal DNA (rDNA) transcription, by the RNA polymerase I (RNAP1), which takes place in the nucleolus. Many nuclear proteins are excluded from the nucleolus and because of this some nucleolar processes cannot occur inside this structure. In order to be replicated and repaired rDNAs need to be displaced at the nucleolar periphery. Despite the importance of RNAP1 transcription, repair of the mammalian transcribed rDNA has been scarcely studied. Moreover, to the best of our knowledge no molecular mechanism has been proposed for rDNA displacement. Our study clearly demonstrated that the full TCR machinery is needed to repair UV-damaged rDNA and restart RNAP1 transcription. Our results show that UV lesions block RNAP1 transcription and that RNAP1 is firmly stalled onto rDNAs without being degraded. Our study also describes the displacement of the RNAP1/rDNA complex to the nucleolar periphery after UV irradiation and identifies both nuclear ß-actin and nuclear myosin I as factors required for this displacement

L’intégrité de l’ADN est continuellement remise en question par divers agents endogènes et exogènes (p. ex., la lumière ultraviolette, la fumée de cigarette, la pollution de l’environnement, les dommages oxydatifs, etc.) qui causent des lésions de l’ADN qui interfèrent avec les fonctions cellulaires correctes. Le mécanisme de réparation par excision de nucléotides (NER) supprime les adduits d’ADN déformantes l’hélice tels que les lésions induites par les UV et il existe dans deux sous voies distinctes selon l’endroit où les lésions de l’ADN sont situées dans le génome. L’une de ces sous voies est directement liée à la transcription de l’ADN (TCR) par l’ARN Polymérase 2 (ARNP2). Dans la première partie de ce travail, nous avons démontré qu’un mécanisme NER entièrement compétent est également nécessaire pour la réparation de l’ADN ribosomique (ADNr), transcrite par ARN Polymérase 1 (ARNP1) et représentant 60 % de la transcription cellulaire totale. De plus, nous avons identifié et clarifié le mécanisme de deux protéines responsables du repositionnement nucléolaire dépendant des UV de l’ARNP1 et de l’ADNr observé pendant la réparation. Dans la deuxième partie de ce travail, nous avons étudié la fonctionne moléculaire de la protéine XAB2 lors de la réparation NER et nous avons démontré son implication dans le processus TCR. De plus, nous avons également montré la présence de XAB2 dans un complexe d’épissage du pré-ARNm. Enfin, nous avons décrit l’impact de XAB2 sur la mobilité de l’ARNP2 lors des premières étapes de la réparation TCR, suggérant ainsi un rôle de XAB2 dans le processus de reconnaissance des lésions / The integrity of DNA is continuously challenged by a variety of endogenous and exogenous agents (e.g. ultraviolet light, cigarette smoke, environmental pollution, oxidative damage, etc.) that cause DNA lesions which interfere with proper cellular functions. Nucleotide Excision Repair (NER) mechanism removes helix-distorting DNA adducts such as UV-induced lesions and it exists in two distinct sub-pathways depending where DNA lesions are located within the genome. One of these sub pathways is directly linked to the DNA transcription by RNA Polymerase 2 (TCR). In the first part of this work, we demonstrated that a fully proficient NER mechanism is also necessary for repair of ribosomal DNA, transcribed by RNA polymerase 1 and accounting for the 60 % of the total cellular transcription. Furthermore, we identified and clarified the mechanism of two proteins responsible for the UV-dependent nucleolar repositioning of RNAP1 and rDNA observed during repair. In the second part of this work, we studied the molecular function of the XAB2 protein during NER repair and we demonstrated its involvement in the TCR process. In addition, we also shown the presence of XAB2 in a pre-mRNA splicing complex. Finally, we described the impact of XAB2 on RNAP2 mobility during the first steps of TCR repair, thus suggesting a role of XAB2 in the lesion recognition process

Le cancer de l’ovaire est un cancer ayant un taux de décès particulièrement élevé. Les patientes répondent habituellement bien aux traitements chimiothérapeutiques mais la majorité connaîtront une rechute. Plusieurs mécanismes ont été identifiés comme partiellement responsables du développement de la résistance clinique à la chimiothérapie, dont la réparation plus efficace de l’ADN par la réparation par excision de nucléotides (NER). L'un des agents communément utilisés pour traiter ce cancer est le cisplatine, qui induit des dommages à l'ADN réparés par le NER. Une étude précédente de notre laboratoire a démontré qu'une déficience uniquement en phase S de la réparation par le NER peut se produire. Cette déficience est aussi dépendante de la kinase ATR. Nous avons choisi de déterminer si cette déficience est présente dans certains cas de cancer de l’ovaire et si cette déficience joue un rôle sur la résistance à la chimiothérapie. Nos objectifs sont donc : (i) vérifier la présence de cette déficience dans diverses lignées isolées du cancer de l’ovaire ; (ii) vérifier si le traitement chimiothérapeutique par des agents à base de platine peut favoriser la survie de cellules ayant une meilleure capacité de réparation par le NER; (iii) mesurer la sensibilité de ces lignées au cisplatine et vérifier si ceci corrèle avec leur capacité de réparation par le NER en phase S; (iv) déterminer si cette déficience est causée par la kinase ATR dans ces lignées. Nous avons déterminé qu’une déficience importante de la réparation par le GG-NER en phase S est présente dans de nombreuses lignées. De plus, des lignées isolées d’une même patiente pré-chimiothérapie et post-chimiothérapie montrent une augmentation significative de leur capacité de réparation par le GG-NER en phase S, suggérant un rôle de ce processus dans la résistance à la chimiothérapie. Nous avons aussi démontré qu’il y a une corrélation entre la capacité de réparation en phase S par le GG-NER et la sensibilité des lignées au cisplatine. Toutefois, nos résultats suggèrent que cette déficience n’est pas causée par ATR dans ces lignées puisque la phosphorylation de H2AX en réponse aux UV est similaire dans toutes les lignées. En plus d’un important apport fondamental, cette étude permettra d’étudier un potentiel mécanisme de résistance aux traitements chimiothérapeutiques dans le cancer de l’ovaire humain. / Ovarian cancer is one of the most lethal cancers. Patients usually respond very well to chemotherapy but most will eventually relapse. Many molecular processes have already been shown to influence chemotherapy resistance, including more efficient DNA repair by nucleotide excision repair. One commonly used drug for the treatment of ovarian cancer is cisplatin, a drug inducing lesions on DNA that can be repaired by NER. A previous study in our lab has shown that NER can be deficient specifically in S-phase. This effect is dependent on the kinase ATR. Thus, we chose to explore the possibility that this deficiency has an impact on resistance to cisplatin. Our objectives are: (i) to study the repair profile by NER in S-phase in ovarian cancer cell lines; (ii) to test if chemotherapeutic treatment can modulate nucleotide excision repair in cell lines by selecting cells that repair damage by NER more efficiently; (iii) to measure the sensitivity of these cell lines to cisplatin; (iv) to test if this deficiency can be attributed to ATR signalling. We show in this study that many ovarian cancer cell lines have an important defect in GG-NER specifically in S-phase. Pairs of cell lines that were isolated before and after chemotherapeutic treatment show an increase in their GG-NER efficiency in S-phase, suggesting a role for this enzymatic process in chemotherapy resistance. Also, we have found a correlation between the efficiency of GG-NER in S-phase and the sensitivity to cisplatin in the cell lines used in our study. However, the defect in GG-NER in S-phase in these ovarian cancer cell lines doesn’t seem to be due to ATR because the phosphorylation of H2AX in response to UV is equivalent between the different cell lines. This study will have an impact on our understanding of the fundamental aspects of DNA repair but could also provide insights on a potential novel mechanism of resistance to chemotherapy.

Named Entity Recognition (NER) is a critical task in Natural Language Processing (NLP), and recent advancements in language model pre-training have significantly improved its performance. However, this improvement is not universally applicable due to a lack of large pre-training datasets or computational budget for smaller languages. This study explores the viability of fine-tuning an English and a multilingual model on a Swedish NER task, compared to a model trained solely on Swedish. Our methods involved training these models and measuring their performance using the F1-score metric. Despite fine-tuning, the Swedish model outperformed both the English and multilingual models by 3.0 and 9.0 percentage points, respectively. The performance gap between the English and Swedish models during fine-tuning decreased from 19.8 to 9.0 percentage points. This suggests that while the Swedish model achieved the best performance, fine-tuning can substantially enhance the performance of English and multilingual models for Swedish NER tasks. / Inom området för Natural Language Processing (NLP) är identifiering av namngivna entiteter (NER) en viktig problemtyp. Tack vare senaste tidens framsteg inom förtränade språkmodeller har modellernas prestanda på problemtypen ökat kraftigt. Denna förbättring kan dock inte tillämpas överallt på grund av en brist på omfattande dataset för förträning eller tillräcklig datorkraft för mindre språk. I denna studie undersöks potentialen av fine-tuning på både en engelsk, en svensk och en flerspråkig modell för en svensk NER-uppgift. Dessa modeller tränades och deras effektivitet bedömdes genom att använda F1-score som mått på prestanda. Även med fine-tuning var den svenska modellen bättre än både den engelska och flerspråkiga modellen, med en skillnad på 3,0 respektive 9,0 procentenheter i F1-score. Skillnaden i prestandan mellan den engelska och svenska modellen minskade från 19,8 till 9,0 procentenheter efter fine-tuning. Detta indikerar att även om den svenska modellen var mest framgångsrik, kan fine-tuning av engelska och flerspråkiga modeller betydligt förbättra prestandan för svenska NER-uppgifter.

Nucleotide excision repair (NER) is one of the major repair systems for removal of DNA lesions. The NER pathway has evolved mainly to repair UV-induced DNA damage and is also active against a broad range of endogenously generated oxidative lesions. Defects in NER result in the human inherited disorder xeroderma pigmentosum (XP), which is characterised by UV hypersensitivity and a 1000-fold increased risk of skin cancer. ERCC1 is essential for the NER pathway where it acts in a complex with the XPF protein to make the incision 5' to the DNA lesion. The normal 1.1kb Ercc1 transcript is expressed in all tissues. Our group has discovered a second larger 1.5 kb transcript, which initiates from an alternative promoter, and is the most abundant Ercc1 transcript in mouse skin. The aims of this project were: 1, To investigate the role of ERCC1 and of the 1.5kb skin specific Ercc1 transcript in protecting the skin against UV-induced DNA damage. 2, To study the importance of ERCC1 in melanoma skin cancer and investigate ERCC1as a possible target for therapy against melanoma. Using a panel of Ercc1 wild-type and deficient cells, we established a quantitative western blotting system to study the expression of ERCC1 in a range of mouse tissues and mouse and human cell types. Although the skin-specific Ercc1 transcript was found to be present at much higher levels in the skin of albino compared to pigmented mouse strains, this did not result in an elevated level of ERCC1 protein. We were also unable to demonstrate that UV-irradiation, or other stress-inducing treatments resulted in increased levels of ERCC1 protein in cultured mouse keratinocytes. We investigated the DNA methylation status of the normal Ercc1 promoter and that of two potential upstream promoter regions that were candidates for the source of the 1.5kb skin-specific Ercc1 transcript. We found no evidence that they were the source and, instead, used 5' RACE analysis to locate the skin-specific promoter to a polymorphic region 500bp upstream of the normal initiation site. In albino strains this region contains a SINE element, which we hypothesize could be involved in the production of the skin-specific Ercc1 transcript. We also investigated the protein level of ERCC1 and other DNA repair proteins, including XPF, MSH2, MSH6 and MLH1 in human melanoma cells and ovarian tumour cells. Significantly elevated protein levels of ERCC1 and XPF, as well as the mismatch repair protein MLH1 were found in melanoma cells. This could possibly contribute to the higher resistance to chemotherapy in melanoma, although the melanoma cell lines we tested did not show increased resistance to UV and cisplatin compared to the ovarian cancer cells tested. When Ercc1 proficient mouse melanoma cells were xenografted into nude mice the xenografts grew rapidly. Cisplatin treatment caused an initial shrinkage of the tumours, but re-growth rapidly followed. Cells re-isolated into culture from cisplatin treated xenografts had significantly higher levels of ERCC1 protein than either input cells, or cells re-isolated from untreated xenografts. An isogenic Ercc1 deficient derivative of the Ercc1 proficient mouse melanoma cell line grew as rapidly as the parent line in vitro, but grew much more slowly as xenografts. In addition, the xenografts shrank completely following cisplatin treatment and did not recover. This suggests that ERCC1 could be a drug target for melanoma therapy.

Student Number: 7507654 Masters in Education Faculty of Humanities / The right of access to education has been an issue of international concern for many decades. With the transition to democracy in South Africa, marked by the first democratic election in 1994, the right of access to education has also formed a cornerstone of South Africa’s education policy. Access to nine years of basic education is guaranteed in terms of the South African Constitution. The right to further education is also entrenched in terms of the Constitution, although this is conditional on the state making this progressively available and accessible through reasonable measures. By using actual 2001 population and school enrolment data, this research study measures access to schooling by using standard international indicators of access, namely gross and net enrolment ratios, age-specific enrolment rates, and apparent and net intake rates. The study compares such data with existing estimates by other organisations and analysts. It assesses the extent to which universal or full access to basic education has been achieved and how far South Africa has gone in making further education progressively available. The study suggests that in-depth analysis of the data shows that access to education is not as widespread as other estimates have indicated. The net enrolment ratio in the basic or compulsory education phase is 89% and not 97% as estimated by the Department of Education. Some 13% of children of school-going age (or 1.55 million children) are not attending school. The study found that universal access to basic education has not been achieved. There are problems with access to further education and South African learners’ access to education is affected by provincial location. Provincial gross enrolment ratios range from 89% to 101% and net enrolment ratios range from 82% to 91%. The study recommends that further research is required to identify the barriers that are preventing full access to education. It also recommends that future progress in terms of access to education must continue to be monitored which means that good, accurate and consistent data must be made available.

No description available.

A mitoxantrona (MXT) é um antineoplásico utilizado no tratamento de tumores como leucemias, linfoma não-Hodgkin e câncer de mama e próstata. Ela é classificada como uma antracenodiona, sendo um análogo estrutural das antraciclinas, como a doxorrubicina (DOX), cujo mecanismo de ação é baseado na inibição da enzima topoisomerase II (Topo II), através da formação dos complexos estabilizados Topo II-DNA. As antraciclinas e a MXT também são capazes de formar lesões do tipo adutos, pontes intercadeias de DNA (interstrand crosslink – ICL) e espécies reativas de oxigênio (ERO). Estudos têm demonstrado que a via de reparo por excisão de nucleotídeos (Nucleotide Excision Repair – NER) está envolvido na remoção de lesões no DNA induzidas pela DOX. Considerando as similaridades estruturais e de mecanismo de ação entre a MXT e a DOX, o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a influência da via NER na citotoxicidade da MXT, a fim de elucidar possíveis mecanismos envolvidos na resistência tumoral a esta droga. Os resultados encontrados demonstraram que células deficientes na via NER (XPA, XPD, XPC e CSB) apresentam elevada sensibilidade a MXT comparadas a células proficientes em reparo (MRC5). Apesar disso, células CSB (deficientes na subvia associada à transcrição - Transcription coupled – TCR-NER) são mais sensíveis a MXT que células XPC (deficientes na subvia de reparo global do genoma – Global genome repair – GGR-NER) e também apresentam diferenças no perfil de ciclo celular, síntese de DNA e formação dos complexos Topo II-DNA após tratamento com MXT. Células XPC, da mesma forma que as células proficientes MRC5 apresentam parada de ciclo celular em G2/M, recuperação da síntese de DNA e sinal semelhante para formação dos complexos Topo II-DNA, enquanto células CSB apresentam acúmulo de células na fase S, diminuição na síntese de DNA e sinal mais intenso para formação dos complexos Topo II-DNA. Além disso, a complementação das células CSB com a proteína CSB recuperou a resistência das células a MXT e também diminuiu a intensidade do sinal dos complexos Topo II-DNA. Estes resultados indicaram que a via NER está envolvida na resistência das células ao tratamento com MXT e que a proteína CSB ou a subvia TCR-NER tem um papel chave no processamento dos complexos Topo II-DNA. / Mitoxantrone (MXT) is an antineoplastic drug used in treatment of tumors like leukemia, non-Hodgkin lymphoma and breast and prostate cancer. It is classified as an anthracenedione, being a structural analogue of anthracyclines, like doxorubicin (DOX), which action mechanism is based on topoisomerase II (Topo II) inhibition and formation of stabilized Topo II-DNA complexes. Anthracyclines and MXT also can form lesions like DNA adducts, interstrand crosslinks (ICL) and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Studies have shown that nucleotide excision repair (NER) pathway is involved in removal of lesions induced by DOX. Due to structural and action mechanism similarities between MXT and DOX, the aim of this work was to evaluate the influence of NER pathway in cytotoxicity of MXT, in order to elucidate possible mechanisms involved in tumor resistance to this drug. The results demonstrated that NER-deficient cells (XPA, XPD, XPC and CSB) show high sensitivity to MXT compared to repair proficient cells (MRC5). However, CSB cells (deficient in Transcription coupled repair – TCR) were more sensitive to MXT than XPC cells (deficient in Global genome repair – GGR) and also showed differences in cell cycle, DNA synthesis and Topo II-DNA complexes formation upon MXT treatment. XPC cells, in the same way as MRC5 proficient cells present G2/M cell cycle arrest, DNA synthesis recovery and similar signal for Topo II-DNA complexes formation, while CSB cells present accumulation of cells in S phase, reduced DNA synthesis and a more intense signal for Topo II-DNA complexes formation. Moreover, CSB cells complementation recovery MXT-resistance and also diminished Topo II-DNA complexes signal intensity. These results indicate that NER pathway is involved in cells resistance to MXT treatment and that CSB protein or TCR-NER sub pathway has a key role in processing of MXT induced Topo II-DNA complexes.

DNA damage repair is an essential and complex cellular process. Although the basic mechanisms of nucleotide excision repair (NER) have been studied for decades, some mechanistic details remain elusive. The lesion detection step remains one of the most elusive in the process of NER in the contest of chromatin. The work described herein addresses the initial events in the lesion detection step of chromatin repair, also referred to as global genome repair (GG-NER). Both the role of post-translational modifications of lesion identification proteins, and the initial sequence of events in recruitment of repair and remodeling factors are investigated. First, the controversial role of ubiquitination of DDB2 (a human lesion detection protein) is investigated. Due to documented DDB2 function in alternative physiological processes, its direct role in GG-NER is hard to study in human cells. To overcome this obstacle, we established the budding yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae as an alternative, simplified model organism to study DDB2-mediated GG-NER. Using this system, we show that inconsistent with the widely accepted model, rapid degradation of DDB2 post-UV irradiation is not an absolute requirement for progression of GG-NER. However, interestingly, our data suggest a role for ubiquitination in the release of DDB2 from chromatin. In both UV and mock treated samples, ubiquitin deficient cells had significantly higher amounts of DDB2 remaining bound to the chromatin compared to the isogenic parent cells. The discussion focuses on the possible physiological relevance of these observations. Additionally, the recruitment of the SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling complex to the silent HML (Hidden MAT Left) locus was also investigated. SWI/SNF is known to require recruitment for its role in transcription; therefore we investigate this requirement in GG-NER. Based on previously published data that indicate an UV-stimulated association of SWI/SNF and Rad4 (a lesion detection protein), we hypothesized that Rad4 is involved in recruitment of SWI/SNF to damaged DNA. Interestingly, our data suggest that Rad4 is not an absolute requirement for recruitment of Snf6 to the HML locus following UV irradiation. However, Rad16 appears to be. These data present an interesting insight into the lesion detection step in GG-NER and this will be discussed.