It was long believed that humans were unable to utilise the odours of conspecifics to co-ordinate social interactions in ways in which other species appear to be capable. However, a surge in interest in human social olfaction has recently challenged this view. The numerous studies conducted in this area have found that multiple state and trait related cues can be detected in body odour. Furthermore, many studies indicate that women are often more sensitive to these cues, and that sensitivity can be associated with fertility, findings that are consistent with sex differences in reproductive effort and benefits of choosiness in mate-searching. Since previous studies in this area have usually addressed the potential for humans to use olfactory communication in a comparable manner to other mammals, they typically involve collection and assessment of ‘natural’ odour. That is, they explicitly exclude the possibility of ‘contamination’ of odour samples by artificial fragrances. However, humans have used artificial fragrances for millennia, across many different cultures. This raises the question of whether widespread fragrance use may affect or disrupt the detection of this information in modern humans. The first aim of this thesis was to address this question by investigating how fragrance use may mediate the detection of olfactory information in humans. As well as providing further evidence for sex differences in the assessment of olfactory cues, and for the role of olfaction in real world partner choice, the findings herein suggest that fragrance may act differently on different information being assessed, potentially masking accurate assessment of certain traits (such as masculinity), while fragrance choice and preferences may be important in complementing other olfactory information (such as the general distinguishability of an individuals’ odour profile). A second aim of the thesis was to develop a scale in order to more accurately describe the varying perceptual qualities of human body odour – in other words to map human body odours. This work was conducted alongside perfumers in order to benefit from their expertise in olfactory perception and semantic labelling of odours. The development of such a scale could enable improved understanding of the perceptual qualities of human odour, making it possible to link specific perceptual qualities to specific cues (e.g. symmetry, masculinity, sex) or to manipulate odours based on perceptual qualities in experimental settings, and has direct practical implications for fragrance designers and for improving the ability of individuals to choose fragrance products that suit their odour profile. The second section of the thesis focuses on the effects of odours on the individual wearer as well as on perceivers in the environment. One study is presented which investigates the role of malodour reduction compared to the addition of fragrances in perceptions of confidence and attractiveness, finding that both the reduction of malodour and the addition of fragrance appear to be important for confidence as rated by others in the environment. The final study presented in the thesis examines a hitherto un-investigated role of olfaction during human pregnancy. The rationale for the study is based on evidence suggesting that in certain non-human species, which also show bi-parental care of offspring, there may be a role for chemical, or odour based, communication which underpins behavioural and endocrinological changes related to infant care behaviours in males. The study found little evidence to support the presence of analogous olfactory signalling during human pregnancy, though the findings are discussed in light of methodological changes which, if made in future studies, may result in different outcomes. The thesis concludes with a discussion of the importance of continuing to investigate various forms of olfactory communication, as well as improving our understanding of odours through the mapping of their perceptual qualities, and finally further examining the ways in which various fragranced products, which are widely used in society, may affect all of this. Future directions for this area of research are discussed. This line of investigation will, I argue, enable us to finally establish the true role of olfaction in contemporary social environments.

O comportamento gregário é comum em algumas espécies de Opiliones. No período noturno indivíduos gregários saem do abrigo para forragear e ao amanhecer retornam ao ambiente de repouso. Químicos de coespecíficos têm sido discutidos como mediadores do retorno ao abrigo nos indivíduos da subordem Eupnoi, mas até o momento nada se sabe sobre as pistas que os indivíduos da subordem Laniatores utilizam para retornar ao abrigo. Recentemente, uma grande diversidade de receptores olfativos foi descrita nessa subordem e o uso do olfato à curta distância (< 2 cm) já foi documentado em agregados. Testamos as hipóteses do uso do olfato à longa distância (50 cm) na atração por (1) químicos voláteis emitidos diretamente de coespecíficos e (2) químicos voláteis próprios e de coespecíficos deixados previamente nos abrigos. Utilizamos um olfatômetro em formato de Y. Usamos como estímulos fêmeas e machos coespecíficos para (1) e abrigos dos sujeitos experimentais, de coespecífico do mesmo sexo e controle para (2). Para (1) machos de M. cuspidatus escolheram significativamente o lado do olfatômetro com machos coespecíficos. Fêmeas de M. cuspidatus não mostraram preferência por nenhum dos estímulos. Para (2) machos e fêmeas de M. cuspidatus não escolheram significativamente nenhum estímulo do olfatômetro. Esses resultados nos mostram que talvez machos de M. cuspidatus tenham maior sensibilidade olfativa comparada ao das fêmeas coespecíficas. Os machos de M. cuspidatus não mostraram preferência por fêmeas coespecíficas talvez porque no momento do experimento as fêmeas não estivessem liberando voláteis. Nossos resultados também mostram que indivíduos de M. cuspidatus não são atraídos à distância por químicos deixados no abrigo, talvez porque esses químicos sejam pouco voláteis ou porque os indivíduos detectaram o odor, mas optaram por não escolher o braço com odor próprio e nem de coespecífico. O olfato parece ser mais importante do que anteriormente mencionado em Opiliones / Gregarious behavior is common in some species of Opiliones. At night, gregarious individuals leave their shelter to forage and at dawn return to the original spot. Chemicals of conspecifics have been suggested to be mediators of homing in individuals of the suborder Eupnoi, but so far nothing is known about the cues used in the suborder Laniatores. Recently, a large diversity of olfactory receptors has been described in this suborder and the use of olfaction at close range (<2 cm) has already been documented in aggregations. We tested the hypotheses of the use of olfaction at long range (50 cm) in the attraction by (1) volatile chemicals emitted directly from conspecifics and (2) volatiles (own chemicals and conspecific chemicals) previously left in shelters. We used a Y-shaped olfactometer. We used conspecific females and males as stimuli for (1) and shelters of the experimental subjects and of conspecifics of the same sex for (2). For (1) males of M. cuspidatus chose significantly the side of the olfactometer with conspecifics males. Females did not choose any stimuli. For (2) males and females of M. cuspidatus did not choose any of the stimuli. Males may therefore be more sensitive than females. Males of M. cuspidatus did not show preference for conspecific females, perhaps because at the time of the experiment females were not releasing volatiles. Individuals of M. cuspidatus are not attracted at a distance by chemicals left in the shelter, perhaps because these chemicals are not volatile or because the individuals detected the odor, but chose not to walk towards it. Olfaction seems to be more important than previously mentioned in Opiliones

Dentre as hipóteses para explicar mecanismos utilizados por pombos-correios para se orientar e navegar no espaço destacam-se a utilização de dois fatores ambientais: gradientes de odores específicos na atmosfera e o campo geomagnético. Para determinar se há diferenças ou correlações entre áreas cerebrais envolvidas com as vias sensoriais olfatória e magnética, utilizou-se imunohistoquímica e gene de resposta imediata ZENK. Dois grupos foram expostos a estímulos olfatórios, mas um com oclusão de narinas. Um grupo foi exposto ao estímulo magnético variando em direção e intensidade semelhante ao campo geomagnético durante o voo, com narinas tampadas. Dois grupos não foram estimulados, mas um teve oclusão de narinas. Dados indicam igual marcação no bulbo olfatório, córtex pré-piriforme e córtex piriforme em animais com as narinas tampadas, expostos ou não ao estímulo magnético. O estímulo olfatório, por outro lado, foi eficaz em marcar estas estruturas. Conclui-se que o processamento central de pistas magnéticas não está intimamente correlacionado à via olfatória. / There are two main theories to explain how homing pigeons orient and navigate in their return flights from unfamiliar sites: by following olfactory cues in the atmosphere or by means of the geomagnetic field. The aim of this study was to determine whether magnetic and olfactory stimuli activate common brain areas in the pigeon, by an immunohistochemical technique using the immediate early gene ZENK. Two groups were exposed to smell, but one had their nostrils plugged. One group was exposed to a magnetic field varying in direction, of intensity similar to the geomagnetic field during flight, with nostrils plugged. Two groups were not stimulated, but one had their nostrils plugged, whereas the other did not. The data indicates that ZENK expression in the olfactory bulb, pre-piriform cortex and piriform cortex was not different in birds with nostrils plugged, whether magnetically stimulated or not. The conclusion is that central processing of magnetic cues is unlikely to be intimately related to the olfactory pathway.

La cellule microgliale, seule cellule du système immunitaire résidant en permanence dansle système nerveux central, a un rôle important dans le développement cérébral. Elle participe à l’élagage des neurones en développement, via le marquage des épines dendritiques à éliminer par les facteurs du complément. Certaines régions cérébrales continuent à produire des neurones à l’âge adulte. Chez le rongeur, des néo-neurones sont ainsi générés dans la zone sous-ventriculaire tout au long de la vie et migrent vers le bulbe olfactif où ils s’intègrent au réseau pré-existant. Le but de ce travail est de caractériser l’implication de la microglie dans le développement et l’élagage des neurones nés dans le système olfactif de la souris à l’âge adulte. Pour ce faire, nous avons combiné des méthodes d’étude du comportement, d’immunohistochimie, de microscopie confocale et d’analyse d’images pour explorer les interactions entre microglie et neurones bulbaires dans un contexte normal ou pathologique : déafférentation olfactive, inflammation par les lipopolysaccharides (LPS) bactériens, dérégulation de l’axe hypothalamus-pituitaire-adrénal ou déficience génétique en complément C3 (C3−/−). Nous avons découvert que la microglie phagocyte préférentiellement les néo-neurones nés à l’âge adulte par rapport aux neurones néonataux, et que cette tendance s’accentue encore en cas de déafférentation sensorielle. Ainsi, la microglie façonne le réseau neuronal du bulbe en fonction des expériences sensorielles. La densité d’épines dendritiques est peu impactée par l’activation microgliale, et n’est pas modifiée par l’absence de complément C3. Cela suggère que l’élagage des néo-neurones du bulbe olfactif pourrait ne pas mettre en jeu la microglie et le complément C3. En conclusion, ce travail de thèse montre l’importance de la microglie dans la régulation du taux de neurogenèse bulbaire en fonction de l’activité sensorielle. L’implication de la microglie dans les mécanismes de plasticité neuronale ouvre des perspectives de recherche pour des thérapies ciblées sur les cellules microgliales. / Microglia are resident immune cells in the central nervous system. They participate in the pruning of developing neurons. Complement factors are key markers of the dendritic spines to eliminate...

Les comportements olfactifs nécessitent de reconnaitre les odeurs sur une large gamme de concentration tout en restant sensible aux changements de concentration. Pour accomplir cette tâche paradoxale, le système olfactif doit façonner des représentations des odeurs qui soient à la fois dépendantes et indépendantes de leurs concentrations.Nous avons combiné des techniques de génétique murine, microscopie biphotonique, et enregistrements neurophysiologiques extracellulaires pour caractériser l’activité neuronale en réponse aux odeurs dans le bulbe olfactif et le cortex olfactif (piriforme) de la souris. En utilisant une souris au « nez monoclonal », nous montrons que les circuits du bulbe olfactif sont capables d’amplifier les entrées sensorielles très faibles, et d’atténuer les entrées envahissantes. En revanche, nous observons que le niveau d’activité neuronale induite par les odeurs dans le cortex piriforme est globalement indépendant de leurs concentrations. En outre, nous avons identifié une sous-population de neurones du cortex piriforme encodant l’identité d’une odeur indépendamment de sa concentration. Nos résultats d’imagerie calcique in vivo et d’enregistrement neurophysiologiques suggèrent que cette invariance à la concentration dans le cortex piriforme est assurée par les interneurones positifs à la paravalbumine, une sous-population de neurones inhibiteurs.Ces résultats mettent en évidence deux étapes différenciées du traitement de l’information dans les voies neurales de l’olfaction : tandis que le bulbe olfactif normalise les entrées sensorielles, les microcircuits du cortex piriforme intègrent cette information en composantes sensorielles distinctes. / Olfactory behaviors require the identification of odors across a large range of different concentrations, yet are exquisitely sensitive to changes in odor concentrations. To accomplish this seemingly paradoxical task the olfactory system must generate odor representations that are, at once, both concentration-dependent and concentration-invariant.We have used a combination of mouse genetics, in vivo two-photon microscopy, and extracellular multielectrode recording techniques to characterize odor-evoked activity in the olfactory bulb and olfactory (piriform) cortex of mice. Taking advantage of a mouse with a “monoclonal nose” in which the sensory input map is strongly perturbed, we show that olfactory bulb circuits are able to amplify very weak sensory inputs, and to suppress pervasive input.In contrast, we found that the overall level of odor-evoked neural activity in the piriform cortex is largely concentration-invariant. Moreover, we identified a small subpopulation of odor-responsive piriform neurons, which encodes odor identity independent of concentration. In vivo calcium imaging and extracellular multielectrode recordings suggest that parvalbumin-expressing interneurons, a subpopulation of inhibitory neurons, mediate concentration invariance in the piriform cortex.These results highlight contrasting processing mechanisms of sensory information along the olfactory pathway: while the olfactory bulb normalizes sensory inputs, microcircuits of the piriform cortex integrate this information into distinct sensory features. This process may allow for the simultaneous representation of identity and intensity in the olfactory system.

Les odeurs résultent la plupart du temps de la perception de mélanges de molécules odorantes. De nombreuses études ont montré que les caractéristiques perceptives des mélanges d’odorants sont souvent différentes de celles de leurs constituants. Ainsi l’intensité odorante d’un mélange peut être supérieure (synergie ou hyper-addition) ou inférieure (hypo-addition) à la simple somme arithmétique des intensités des constituants du mélange. Les mélanges d’odorants peuvent également donner lieu à de nouvelles qualités d’odeurs (perception synthétique) ou laisser apparaître celles des constituants (perception analytique). Cependant, les mécanismes biologiques impliqués dans la perception des mélanges restent méconnus. Quelques études montrent que des interactions à l’entrée du système olfactif pourraient jouer un rôle important dans le traitement de l’information olfactive. En effet, des interactions compétitives et non compétitives ont été observées au niveau des récepteurs olfactifs (RO) et des neurones sensoriels olfactifs (NSO). Dans cette thèse, nous avons étudié en parallèle les réponses des RO et des NSO ainsi que les réponses comportementales à trois mélanges binaires: Octanal (Oct) + Citronnellal (Cit), Oct + Méthional (Méth) et acétate d’isoamyle (ISO) + whisky lactone (WL). Trois approches ont été mises en œuvre: i) des études in vitro des RO par imagerie calcique sur des cellules HEK293; ii) des mesures ex-vivo d’électro-olfactogrammes au niveau des NSO de rat ; iii) des études psychophysiques chez l’Homme. Les résultats ont montré de fortes similitudes entre les réponses des RO/NSO et les réponses perceptives chez l’Homme pour les mélanges Oct + Méth et WL + ISO. Les liens sont moins importants pour le mélange Oct + Cit pour lequel les RO étudiés génèrent des réponses différentes de celles observées aux niveaux plus intégrés. Globalement, ces résultats soutiennent l'hypothèse que les interactions qui se produisent au niveau périphérique contribuent de manière significative au codage olfactif des mélanges odorants / Odours result from the perception of odorant mixtures. Several studies reported that perceptual characteristics of these mixtures are often different from those of their individual components. It has been shown that odour intensity for mixtures can be higher (synergy/hyper-addition) or lower (hypo-addition) than the simple arithmetic sum of each component’s intensity. Besides, mixtures can also give rise to novel odour qualities (configural perception) or conversely are perceived as the juxtaposition of individual components’ odour quality (elemental perception). However, the biological mechanisms that govern odour mixture perception remain unclear, even if there is increasing evidence that peripheral phenomena could play an important role in mixture processing. Indeed, competitive and non-competitive interactions have been observed at the olfactory receptor (OR) and olfactory sensory neuron (OSN) levels. In this PhD work, we investigated in parallel the responses of OR, ON and human behavioural responses for three binary mixtures of odorants: Octanal (Oct) + Citronellal (Cit), Oct + Methional (Meth) and isoamyl acetate (ISO) + whiskey lactone (WL). Three types of experiments were performed: (i) in vitro OR calcium imaging of HEK293 cells; (ii) ex vivo electro-olfactogram measurement on rat OSN; (iii) psychophysical measurements in human. Our results showed clear similarities between the responses of OR/OSN and perceptual responses in human for the two mixtures Oct + Meth and ISO + WL, whereas for the Oct + Cit mixture, OR responses are hardly reconcilable with more integrated responses. Taken together, these findings support the hypothesis that interactions occurring at the peripheral level of the olfactory system contribute significantly to the olfactory coding of odour mixture

Within the discipline of sociology human olfaction is rich with social significance yet remains a poorly charted frontier. Therefore, the following discourse is aimed toward the development of a foundation for the sociological study of olfaction. It is formed by the dual goals of unearthing the social history of olfaction and of providing a viable sociological account of the manner in which smells affect human ontology. From these goals arise the following research questions: (1) Have the meaning and social relevance of odors and the olfactory sensorium changed throughout different periods of history?; (2) How have those in the lineage of eminent sociological thinkers addressed the phenomenon of human olfaction during these periods?; and (3) What is the process by which aromatic stimuli are transformed from simple chemical compounds, drifting in the atmosphere, into sensations in a sensory field and then on to perceived objects, to subjects of judgment and interpretation, and finally to bases of knowledge which form and continually reform individuals in the world? The weaving of the sociohistorical tapestry of smell is undertaken to provide examples from thousands of years lived experiences as to the fluid and sociologically complex nature of individuals' olfactory senses. This historical information is presented in a narrative format and is synthesized from data gleaned from books, advertisements, articles in popular non-scientific magazines, as well as from the findings of studies published in medical/neurological, psychological, anthropological, and sociological scholarly journals. Regarding theoretical aim of this discourse, insights are drawn from Maurice Merleau-Ponty's phenomenological theory of human perception for the generation of a framework for the sociological study of olfaction. Merleau-Ponty's theoretical notions are modified, modernized, and refitted to more specifically fit the subject of human olfaction and to include all that has been discovered about the biological specifics of olfactory perception since the time of his writing. Taken in sum, this effort is an access point to the understanding of how olfactory sensory perceptions flow toward the ontological unfolding of individuals.

La privation sensorielle, et tout particulièrement la déficience auditive, s’avère un excellent modèle théorique pour étudier les phénomènes de neuroplasticité dans le cerveau humain ainsi que les comportements adaptatifs qui se manifestent afin de soutenir le quotidien des individus privés d’une modalité sensorielle. Pour s’adapter à leur handicap, les individus sourds se reposent quotidiennement sur leurs autres sens restés intacts. Les éléments de preuves les plus cohérents dans la littérature sont en faveur de performances visuelles et tactiles supérieures chez les individus sourds profonds congénitaux. Dans cette étude, nous souhaitons explorer les habiletés olfactives chez les individus sourds congénitaux. Pour cela, nous avons évalué de façon exhaustive les capacités olfactives de 11 individus sourds congénitaux par le biais de tâches psychophysiques portant sur les processus de détection, d’identification, de discrimination et de localisation d’odorants, en comparaison à 11 individus neurotypiques. Le test du Sniffin’ Sticks et un olfactomètre ont été utilisés afin d’identifier de potentielles différences de performance olfactive entre les deux populations. Les résultats démontrent que la privation auditive entraine des performances supérieures dans la modalité olfactive chez les individus sourds congénitaux en comparaison à des individus neurotypiques. / Sensory deprivation, and particularly hearing impairment, is an excellent theoretical model for studying the phenomena of neuroplasticity in the human brain, as well as the adaptive behaviors available in order to support the daily lives of individuals deprived of a sensory modality. To adapt to their handicap, deaf individuals rely daily on their other senses that have remained intact. Evidence from literature has consistently supported superior visual and tactile performance in congenitally deep deaf individuals. In this study, we explored complete olfactory skills in congenitally deaf individuals. For this, we evaluated the olfactory capacities of 11 congenitally deaf individuals through psychophysical tasks relating to the processes of detection, identification, discrimination and localization of odors, in comparison with 11 hearing individuals. The Sniffin’Sticks test and an olfactometer were used to identify potential differences in olfactory performance between the two groups. The results demonstrated that hearing deprivation leads to superior performance in terms of olfactory modality in congenitally deaf individuals compared to hearing individuals.

Le concept d'Umwelt de Jakob von Uexküll considère les animaux comme des sujets qui habitent leur propre univers subjectif qui est déterminé par la perception sensorielle de l'animal et ses capacités cognitives. Le dauphin apparait être une espèce intéressante pour étudier l'Umwelt, car les cétacés ont subi un changement radical de mode de vie au cours de l'évolution. Ces mammifères sont passés d'une vie terrestre à une vie aquatique. Bien que les grands dauphins soient intensivement étudiés, des recherches sur leur perception sensorielle sont encore nécessaires. Ici, nous avons étudié certains aspects de l'Umwelt des dauphins en nous interrogeant sur: (1) l'organisation de leur Umwelt acoustique nocturne ; (2) ce que la production de copies vocales par les dauphins peut nous dire sur leur perception de leur environnement ; (3) s'ils sont capables de percevoir des goûts (4) ou des odeurs ; (5) s'ils sont sensibles aux stimuli magnétiques. Nous avons constaté que l'Umwelt nocturne des dauphins a été caractérisé par une activité vocale avec des patterns temporels qui comprenaient également des copies vocales des sons que les dauphins avaient entendus au cours de la journée. Il s'agit d'une nette séparation entre la formation de la mémoire auditive et la production de copies vocales. Les copies pourraient être des répétitions nocturnes vocalement exprimées des événements de la journée. Ainsi, les vocalisations peuvent servir d'indicateurs d'événements ou d'objets qui ont un sens pour les dauphins. En ce qui concerne les capacités perceptives des dauphins, nous avons constaté qu'ils étaient sensibles aux stimuli liés à l'alimentation à la fois sur les plans gustatif et olfactif. Ils peuvent utiliser cette capacité pour localiser et / ou évaluer la nature de leur proie. En outre, les dauphins ont répondu à un stimulus magnétique, ce qui suggère qu'ils sont magnétosensibles, cela pourrait être utile pour la navigation. Jusqu'à présent, la chimio- et la magnétoréception n'ont pas été considérées sérieusement comme potentiellement fonctionnelles chez les dauphins. Les résultats obtenus au cours de cette thèse ont permis de combler certaines des lacunes qui subsistaient dans la connaissance de l'Umwelt du dauphin et contribuent ainsi à une meilleure compréhension de cette espèce. En outre, ils montrent que des aspects importants de la biologie d'espèces pourtant intensivement étudiées peuvent être encore méconnus. Cela nous rappelle l'importance de garder une grande ouverture d'esprit lorsque l'on étudie un sujet. / The Umwelt concept of Jakob von Uexküll considers animals as subjects that inhabit their own subjective universe which is determined by the animal’s sensory perception and cognitive abilities. Dolphins present an interesting species to investigate its Umwelt because cetaceans underwent a drastic change in lifestyle in the course of evolution because these mammals returned from a terrestrial life back into the water. Although bottlenose dolphins are intensively studied there are still many knowledge gaps. Here we studied some aspects of the dolphins’ Umwelt by asking: (1) how their nocturnal acoustic Umwelt is arranged; (2) what the production of vocal copies can tell us about the dolphins’ perception of their environment; (3) whether they are able to perceive tastes (4) or odours; (5) whether they are sensitive to magnetic stimuli. We found that the dolphins’ nocturnal Umwelt was characterized by a temporally patterned vocal activity that also included vocal copies of sounds that the dolphins had heard during the day. This is a striking separation between auditory memory formation and vocal copy production and the copies might be a vocally expressed nocturnal rehearsal of day events. Thus, vocalizations can serve as possible indicators of events or objects that are meaningful to the dolphins. Regarding dolphins’ perceptive abilities, we found that they were sensitive to both gustatory and olfactory food-related stimuli. They might use this ability to locate and/or evaluate prey. Further, dolphins responded to a magnetic stimulus, suggesting that they are magnetosensitive, what could be useful for navigation. So far, chemo- and magnetoreception have not been considered seriously as potentially functional in dolphins. The results obtained during this thesis fill some of the gaps that still exist in the knowledge of the dolphin’s Umwelt and therefore contribute to a better understanding of this species. Moreover, they illustrate that even already intensively studied species may still hold important facets of their biology to reveal and that research should broaden the view and remain unbiased when studying a topic.

Background/Aim: Little is known about the clinical significance of phantosmia. The literature on phantosmia indicates that this symptom has a wide range of differential diagnoses. However, most cases of phantosmia remain of unknown origin. Our goal was to follow up patients with idiopathic phantosmia, with special regard to improvement rates and possible severe health conditions preceded by phantosmia of unknown origin. Methods: Forty-four patients with idiopathic phantosmia which had consulted our Ear-Nose-Throat Smell and Taste Clinic over the last 10 years were contacted by telephone and underwent a structured medical interview. Results: None of the patients had eveloped any severe health condition or Parkinson’s disease. More than 5 years after the occurrence of hantosmia, more than 50% of the patients experienced disappearance (31.8%) or improvement (25%). In the remaining cases, phantosmia did not change (38.7%) or became worse ( ! 5%). Conclusion: The main findings of the present study were that idiopathic phantosmia improves or disappears in almost two thirds of the patients after more than 5 years, and that idiopathic phantosmia seems to be more likely a harmless symptom rather than a reliable predictor of early Parkinson’s disease or other severe diseases. / Dieser Beitrag ist mit Zustimmung des Rechteinhabers aufgrund einer (DFG-geförderten) Allianz- bzw. Nationallizenz frei zugänglich.