Many African Independent Churches emerged during the colonial era in central Kenya and western Nigeria. At times they were opposed by government officials and missionaries. Most scholars have limited the field of enquiry to the flash-points of this encounter, thereby emphasizing the relationship at its most severe. This study questions current assumptions about the encounter which have derived from these studies, arguing that both government and missionary officials in Kenya and Nigeria exhibited a broader range of perspectives and responses to African Independent Churches. To characterize them as mainly hostile to African Independent Churches is inaccurate. This study also explores the various encounters between African Independent Churches and African politicians, clergymen, and local citizens. While some scholars have discussed the positive role of Africans in encouraging the growth of independent Christianity, this study will discuss the history in greater depth and complexity. The investigation will show the importance of understanding the encounter on both a local and national level, and the relationships between the two. It is taken for granted that European officials had authority over African leaders, but in regard to this topic many Africans possessed a largely unrecognized ability to influence and shape European perceptions of new religious movements. Finally, this thesis will discuss how African Independent Churches sometimes provoked negative responses from others through confrontational missionary methods, caustic rhetoric, intimidation and even violence. These three themes resurface throughout the history of the encounter and illustrate how current assumptions can be reinterpreted. This thesis suggests the necessity of expanding the primary scholarly focuses, as well as altering the language and basic assumptions of the previous histories of the encounter.

À la fin de l’année 1989, la Roumanie entamait son chemin vers la démocratie. Depuis, le pays a connu de nombreux changements dont une « revitalisation religieuse ». L’attrait pour la religion en Roumanie a suscité l’intérêt des chercheurs qui ont tenté de rendre compte de comportements qu’ils jugeaient contraires aux thèses des théories de la sécularisation et de la modernisation. Ma thèse part d’une critique de ces études qui, concentrées sur ces théories, omettent trop souvent l’action des individus dans la vie de tous les jours. Dans la présente recherche, j’utilise l’approche de la religion vécue pour me pencher sur des individus et leur manière de comprendre, d’exprimer, de pratiquer et d’expérimenter la religion au jour le jour. D’une manière réflexive, ma thèse examine la religion vécue dans la Roumanie postcommuniste à partir de pèlerinages réalisés durant le printemps et l’automne 2012 dans des monastères réputés pour leurs miracles, leurs confesseurs charismatiques ou leurs reliques. En raison de leur présence nombreuse dans les pèlerinages, les femmes se sont imposées comme les artisanes de la religion vécue en Roumanie. Elles sont au centre de ma thèse. En observant leurs croyances et leurs pratiques — et sans omettre la religion vécue des « porteurs de la religion officielle » —, j’explore des thèmes qui constituent autant de facettes de la religion vécue : le sort, le charisme, la matérialité et les reliques. Ma thèse propose deux contributions à la recherche. 1) L’étude de la pratique de la religion des pèlerines nous renseigne sur la manière dont la religion est comprise et pratiquée dans un contexte orthodoxe. Elle laisse également entrevoir les conséquences de cette pratique dans la Roumanie postcommuniste : en effet, la religion vécue s’avère un véhicule de valeurs qui s’opposent au discours démocratique officiel. 2) L’étude propose une contribution théorique et méthodologique à l’approche de la religion vécue. Le matériau empirique sur lequel elle repose indique que la religion vécue prend racine dans l’Église pour ensuite circuler entre les femmes et les représentants de l’institution. Dans ce mouvement de va-et-vient, la religion vécue appartient aux pèlerines, mais aussi aux « porteurs de la religion officielle ». / At the end of 1989, Romania embarked on a path towards democracy. From that moment on, the country has witnessed numerous changes, including a “religious revitalization.” The attraction of religion in post-communist Romania has sparked researchers’ interest; they have tried to explain what they judge contrary to theories of secularization and modernization. My thesis starts with a critique of these studies, which have too often neglected everyday actions of individuals. In the present study, I use a lived religion approach to understand the ways in which individuals understand, express, practice and experiment religion in their daily lives. In a reflexive manner, my thesis examines lived religion in post-communist Romania; it draws on fieldwork undertaken during pilgrimages in the spring and autumn of 2012 in monasteries known for their miracles, their charismatic confessors, or their relics. Because of their predominance during pilgrimages, women stand out as the main actors of lived religion in Romania. They are at the center of my thesis. Observing their beliefs and practices—without omitting the lived religion of the “carriers of official religion”—I set out to explore themes that represent as many facets of lived religion: fate, charisma, materiality, and relics. My thesis offers two research contributions to the sociology of religion. 1) The study of the pilgrim’s religious practice instructs us on the manner in which religion is understood and practiced in an Orthodox context. It also gives insight into the consequences of this practice in post-communist Romania: as it turns out, lived religion is a vehicle for values diverging from the official democratic discourse. 2) The study provides a theoretical and methodological contribution to the lived religion approach. Its empirical material indicates that lived religion stems from the Orthodox Church before circulating between women and church representatives. In this to-and-fro movement lived religion pertains to the pilgrims as well as to the “carriers of official religion.”

Cette recherche décrit les évolutions du waqf des grecs-orthodoxes et des lois qui le gèrent à travers les années et donne un éclairage sur la condition des monastères de l’archevêché de l’Église grecque-orthodoxe du Mont-Liban. En mettant en correspondance, dans la première partie, les différents aspects historiques, structuraux, canoniques de cette Église et des waqfs avant la seconde moitié du XXème siècle, nous avons mis en évidence les situations et les conditions politiques et socio-économiques dans cette période qui ont influencé cette Église en général, et les waqfs des monastères, en particulier. Dans la deuxième partie, nous avons présenté le monachisme dans l’Église grecque-orthodoxe d’Antioche, l’organisation des monastères dans l’archevêché du Mont-Liban et de leurs waqfs avant et après la période de renaissance et les défis rencontrés depuis la Première Guerre mondiale de 1914. En étudiant le fonctionnement des monastères et de leurs waqfs dans l’archevêché grec-orthodoxe du Mont-Liban dans la seconde moitié du XXème siècle, la période de reprise, et plus particulièrement Saint-Georges à Deir elHarf, Notre-Dame à Kaftoun, Saint-Michel à Beq‘ata, Saint-Selwan et Saint-Jean à Douma, Notre-Dame à Hamatoura et Notre-Dame elNouriyé, nous avons découvert la spécificité de chacun. Les études de terrain ont montré que c’est l’importance théologique, écologique et socio-économique qui a permis de favoriser le développement des waqfs et de permettre ainsi aux biens monastiques de contribuer avec évidence à l’épanouissement spirituel et ethico-religieux d’une partie des Libanais. Dans la troisième partie, nous avons utilisé la méthode financière de l’analyse des recettes et des dépenses de trois monastères de l’archevêché grec-orthodoxe du Mont-Liban de 2005 à 2010 ; et celle-ci, en mettant en avant les bonnes qualités de gestion et d’administration des waqfs malgré les difficultés rencontrées, nous a permis d’obtenir la preuve concrète que toutes les actions de développement ont été entreprises dans l’optique de répondre à la vocation première théologique, spirituel, écologique et socio-économique des monastères. Afin de répondre aux exigences de la conjoncture socio-économique du monde contemporain et de ne pas se laisser dépasser par les évolutions techniques, il semble indispensable d’avoir recours aux méthodes les plus modernes en matière d’économie, de gestion et de finances dans la gestion du waqf. L’étude propose différentes solutions pour atteindre ces objectifs et prendrait en compte les solutions pour faire face aux nombreux obstacles susceptibles de se dresser sur le chemin du développement des waqfs. / This research depicts the evolution through time of the Greek Orthodox waqf as well as the laws that govern it. It also highlights the condition of Mount Lebanon’s Greek Orthodox Archdiocese Monasteries. In the first part, this study introduced the different historical, structural, and canonical aspects of the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch and its waqf before the second half of the Twentieth century. It has showed the socio-economic and political situations and conditions that have influenced this Church in general, and the waqf and monasteries in particular. In the second part, we introduced monasticism in the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch, the organization of monasteries in the Archdiocese of Mount Lebanon before and after the period of renaissance and the challenges they met since the First World War in 1914. By studying the functioning of monasteries and their waqf in Mount Lebanon’s Greek Orthodox Archdiocese in the second half of the Twentieth Century – more particularly Saint George in Deir al-Harf, the Dormition of the Theotokos in Kaftoun, the Archangel Michael in Beq’ata, Saint Selwan and Saint John in Douma, the Dormition of the Theotokos in Hamatoura, and the Lady al-Nouriyyah – we were able to discover the specificity of each one. In the second part, we introduced monasticism in the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch, the organization of monasteries in the Archdiocese of Mount Lebanon before and after the period of renaissance and the challenges they met in the second half of the Twentieth Century. We followed the improvement of the structure of monasteries and their development – infrastructure, construction, new equipment, agriculture, etc. Field studies have showed that it is the theological, ecological, and socio-economic importance that helped to promote the development of waqf and thereby enable the monastic properties to contribute efficiently to the social wellbeing of some of the Lebanese. In the third part, we used financial analysis method of revenue and expenditure of three monasteries of Mount Lebanon’s Greek Orthodox Archdiocese from 2005-2010; this highlighting the good qualities of management and administration of waqf despite the difficulties, we were able to get concrete proof that all development actions were undertaken with a view to answer the monasteries’ primary mission – i.e. one that is theological, spiritual, ecological, and socio-economic – and to serve social welfare. To meet the requirements of the contemporary world’s socio-economic conditions and not be overtaken by technical evolutions, it seems essential to resort to the latest methods in economics, management and finance to manage the waqf. The study proposes various solutions to achieve these objectives and take into account the solutions to address the many barriers that may stand in the way of the development of the waqf.

Nikita Khrouchtchev est surtout connu en Occident comme étant celui qui a permis le relatif soulagement de la déstalinisation. Cette image est d’ailleurs aussi persistante dans les anciens pays de l’URSS. Lorsque Khrouchtchev accède au pouvoir, il aspire en effet à des modifications ambitieuses dans des domaines extrêmement variés. La dénonciation des crimes de Staline lors du XXème Congrès du PCUS ouvre la voie à l’expression d’un certain pluralisme intellectuel et artistique qualifié de « dégel » dont les effets seront irréversibles pour la société soviétique dans son ensemble. Le volontarisme du premier secrétaire conduit à une politique de réformes économiques et politiques aussi impromptues que déstabilisatrices. Cependant la déstalinisation sera pour les peuples soviétiques (tout spécialement pour les ukrainiens) une ère de déceptions autant que d’espoirs. En effet, l’Ukraine, un des plus solides bastions de la vie religieuse en Union soviétique, tiendra une place particulière dans cette campagne. Entre autres, les régions de l’ouest de l’Ukraine avaient échappées à la répression des années trente et constituaient un phénomène singulier avec leur vie religieuse vivace et leur refus de rejoindre l’orthodoxie. Ainsi la campagne antireligieuse de Khrouchtchev est une facette méconnue de la politique du successeur de Staline. Le comportement du nouveau premier secrétaire va ainsi être encore plus dur que celui de Staline l’ancien séminariste à l’égard de la religion. Ce dernier avait fait des concessions aux Eglises après 1943, alors que dès 1958, quelques années après l’accession au pouvoir de Khrouchtchev, la propagande antireligieuse redevient virulente. / Nikita Khrushchev is mainly known in the western countries as the one who has allowed a relative relief of the dictatorship thanks to the destalinization process. This opinion is also persistent in the former countries of the USSR. Indeed when Khrushchev seizes power, he wishes to proceed with many ambitious reforms in various areas. Nevertheless, he remains a convinced communist who tries this way to give a new start to the soviet ideological adventure. The denunciation of the crimes of Stalin during the XXth Congress of the Soviet Union Communist Party (SUCP) opens path to some intellectual and artistic pluralism often called « unfreezing ». Furthermore, the wills of the first secretary will lead to a policy of unexpected and unbalancing politic and economic reforms. But in fact the destalinization times will also be times of disappointments, especially for the Ukrainians. Indeed Ukraine will have a special place in the antireligious campaign, as one of the healthiest strongholds of the religious life of the Soviet Union. Since the western regions had not suffered the repression of the thirties, they were a singular phenomenon in the Soviet Union with their vivid religious life and their refusal to become uniformly orthodox. Thus the antireligious campaign of Khrushchev is one of the poorly known sides of the policy of Stalin’s successor. The behaviour of the new first secretary as regards the religions will be indeed even harsher than the one of Stalin (the former were-be priest). Stalin had made concessions to the churches after 1943; but as soon as 1958, few years after Khrushchev’s rise to power, the antireligious propaganda becomes strong and efficient again.

本論文主要在探討俄羅斯東正教政教關係之演變。在研究方法上，主要依據”政教關係”的理論以及相關的文獻分析來進行之。本文的架構以教會過去的歷史、俄羅斯官方的意識型態以及政府的宗教政策之演變為主軸，據此來探討一九九一年底之後，俄羅斯政教關係之變化。 本論文共分五章。第一章說明本文之研究方法與架構。第二章則將帝俄時期至一九八五年以前的俄羅斯政教關係的歷史背景作一簡單的敘述。一九一七年以前，東正教一直是俄羅斯的國教。與其他的教派相比，東正教會享有許多特權，例如，它得以免除稅務以及公民應盡之義務。在蘇聯時期，東正教會喪失原來獨享之特權並且遭受到殘酷之宗教迫害；不過這種情況到戈巴契夫上台以後有了轉變。 本文第三章首先題到戈巴契夫在蘇聯境內實行政治與經濟領域之革新，這些政策伴隨官方意識型態之轉變，導致政府宗教政策的大幅修正，政教關係也因此有所突破。此時俄羅斯東正教會再度受到重視，並且可以進行它的復興工作。在蘇聯解體之後，東正教在俄羅斯的政治上依然扮演著重要的角色。在第四章裏我們將探討教會與俄羅斯政府之間如何相互影響。第五章將對本文作一個總結，並討論俄羅斯政教關係可能的發展方向，以及俄羅斯東正教之未來前景。 / This dissertation focuses on the changes in the relationship between the Russian government and the Russian Orthodox Church. The methodology for this thesis is based on the “Politics-Religion Mutuality”Theory and the analysis of documents pertaining to the two related parties. The framework of this study is based upon three essential topics: the history of the church, the evolution of Russian ideology and the religious policies of Russian government.Analyzing these three topics we may find out how the Russia politics-religion relationship changes after the end of 1991. There are five parts to this thesis. Each part has a chapter devoted specifically to it. In chapter one the methodology and the framework of this dissertation will be expounded. In chapter two the author gives an outline of the history of the relationship between the state and the church. Before 1917 the Russian Orthodox Church was the state church of Russia. Being the official church, the Russian Orthodox Church had many privileges as compared with other denominations, for example, it was exempt from assessments and civic obligations. In the Soviet Union the Russian Orthodox Church lost its monopolistic power and suffered brutal religious persecution. This, however changed when M. Gorbachev headed the government. Chapter three, the turning point, shows the new policies in political and economic domains within the USSR enacted enforced by Gorbachev. These changes to the official ideology also led to large-scale changed in religious policy. At this time the Russian Orthodox Church became highly regarded again in the USSR and could proceed with its own revival. After the disintegration of the USSR, the Russian Orthodox Church was still highly regarded and played an important role in Russia's politics. In chapter four we investigate how the church and the government influenced each other. In chapter five we conclude with a summery, the possible development of mutuality between the Russian Orthodox Church and the prospects of the Russian Orthodox Church.

<p>Mitt syfte med denna uppsats var att undersöka Katolska och Syrisk-Ortodoxa kyrkans förståelse av bikten. Det var på grund utav mitt intresse för båda kyrkorna samt att jag inte funnit något liknande material på svenska som jag valde just detta syfte med min uppsats. Jag har i bästa möjliga mån försökt presentera och analysera bikten utifrån katolsk och syrisk-ortodox tradition. Jag har genom att granska de båda traditionernas katekeser samt bibeln och andra källor, försökt söka deras förståelse av bikten samt hur de tänker kring de olika delarna som bikten omfattas av. Jag valde ut de texter som jag kände passade bäst och var mest representativa för traditionerna samt de texter som har en koppling till kyrkans auktoriteter, det vill säga påvar och patriarker. Genom att använda mig av primärkällor som är skrivna ur ett inifrån perspektiv har jag kunnat få ta del av den korrekta förståelsen om av vad traditionerna egentligen tycker om och förstår av bikten.</p>

Mitt syfte med denna uppsats var att undersöka Katolska och Syrisk-Ortodoxa kyrkans förståelse av bikten. Det var på grund utav mitt intresse för båda kyrkorna samt att jag inte funnit något liknande material på svenska som jag valde just detta syfte med min uppsats. Jag har i bästa möjliga mån försökt presentera och analysera bikten utifrån katolsk och syrisk-ortodox tradition. Jag har genom att granska de båda traditionernas katekeser samt bibeln och andra källor, försökt söka deras förståelse av bikten samt hur de tänker kring de olika delarna som bikten omfattas av. Jag valde ut de texter som jag kände passade bäst och var mest representativa för traditionerna samt de texter som har en koppling till kyrkans auktoriteter, det vill säga påvar och patriarker. Genom att använda mig av primärkällor som är skrivna ur ett inifrån perspektiv har jag kunnat få ta del av den korrekta förståelsen om av vad traditionerna egentligen tycker om och förstår av bikten.

(česky) Tématem mojí práce je přiblížení sporných otázek týkajících se národního vymezení srbské komunity v Dalmácii mezi lety 1878 až 1905. Jedná se o dílčí posouzení vztahu pra-voslavné církve a srbského národního hnutí v Dalmácii. Dále se práce zaměřuje na zformová-ní komunity římskokatolických Srbů a jejich vnitřní profilací. Zkoumán je rovněž srbský pří- stup k jejich konfliktu s Chorvaty v rámci Dalmácie. Práce má též přiblížit historiografické spory vedené na toto téma mezi chorvatskými a srbskými historiky. V práci se přibližuji okolnosti zformování srbského národního hnutí a vzniku samostatné politické srbské strany. Ve zvoleném období se věnuji v rámci strany prezentovanému přístupu k pravoslaví a přístupu vedení pravoslavné církve k vymezení srbské národní identity. Dále se zabývám římskokatolickými Srby a spornými otázkami s nimi spojenými. Zaměřil jsem se také na postoj srbské reprezentace k chorvatskému národnímu hnutí a vypo- řádání se s jeho nároky v rámci vlastního národního projektu. Zjistil jsem, že propojení mezi liberálním srbským národním hnutím a místním vedením pravoslavné církve bylo těsnější, než je běžně uváděno v odborné literatuře. V případě Srbů katolíků se mi podařilo přiblížit konflikt mezi jejich vírou a národní identitou, ale i jejich roli v místním...

The subject of this dissertation is culturally diversified nursing care provided to adherents of the selected religious minorities. The theoretical part of the dissertation is concerned with transcultural nursing care and also with the characteristics of the selected religions. The practical part of this dissertation includes processing and evaluation of the data acquired during the conducted research. There were three objectives set at the beginning. The first objective was to explore the particularities of nursing care provided to adherents of the selected religious minorities. In order to achieve the set objective, a method of half-structured interview with representatives of different minorities (Centre of Muslim Communities, Diamond Way Buddhism and Czech Orthodox Church) living in the Czech Republic was utilized. Seven representatives of each minority took part in the interview. The results of the research related to the first objective showed that there is a range of defects when it comes to providing nursing care to adherents of different religion. Hospitalization in particular was one of the main subjects of the whole interview. Most of the respondents had negative experience when it comes to staying in hospital environment. All the negative experience resulted from and was connected to their religion. The interview also disclosed new information needed for providing considerate nursing care. The new information were disclosed as a result of the interview conducted with each minority and relate to catering, hygiene, dying or refusing medical treatment. The second objective was to monitor nurses? experience with multi-cultural nursing care and the last objective was to determine the nurses? awareness of nursing care fields, in which the adherents of the selected religious minorities in the Czech Republic are particular. In order to achieve the objective related to the quantitative part of the research, a method of survey (questionnaire) was utilized. The questionnaire was given to the nurses from all the hospitals in South-Bohemian Region. The results in this part showed experience of nurses with multi-cultural nursing and their knowledge of nursing care fields, in which the adherents of the selected religious minorities are particular. Although the most of the nurses have come across multi-cultural nursing, they still do not know the particularities of the selected religions completely. The analysis of the results shows that providers of nursing care are getting more and more aware of multi-cultural nursing, which will certainly have a positive impact, in the future, on satisfying the needs connected to religion of individual patients. Based on the results of the research, an informational material intended for nurses was prepared, which contains brief descriptions of the selected religious minorities living in the Czech Republic and their particularities in the field of providing culturally considerate nursing care. Furthermore, standards for nursing care were created for each one of the selected religious minorities. Preparation of material for accreditation of educational courses for nurses also took place. The material is focused on multi-cultural nursing and the selected religious minorities. In order to further improve the care provided to the adherents of different religions, a nursing anamnesis draft was created, which also focuses on needs connected to religion.

Dans cette thèse je démontre comment les imaginaires de la nation serbe, de l’Occident et des valeurs universelles (démocratie, droits de l’homme et tolérance) véhiculées au sein de la revue ‘Orthodoxie’ (publiée par l’Eglise Orthodoxe Serbe) ont pour but final la préservation de la position sociale de l’Eglise et de ses intérêts en tant qu’une institution religieuse au sein de la société serbe. Cette ‘résistance’ aux changements construit des imaginaires sociaux qui nous appréhendons comme des représentations sociales et ont tendance à (re)devenir la vision dominante de la société serbe. J’étudie le discours de la revue ‘Orthodoxie’ et des acteurs qui y contribuent afin de montrer le processus des créations des imaginaires sociaux et leurs tentatives de se présenter au public et dans la sphère publique comme les courants de pensée dominants concernant la nation serbe, l’Occident et les valeurs ‘universelles’. J’ai répondu aux questions suivantes : - comment la tradition nationale « se traditionalise », la culture nationale s’idéalise et l’identité nationale se sacralise ? - comment l’imaginaire de l’Europe et de la culture européenne/occidentale (‘EUX’) se construisent en opposition à l’imaginaire de la nation serbe (‘NOUS’) ? - comment les valeurs de la démocratie, des droits de l’homme et de la tolérance sont imaginées à travers une telle construction opposée (‘EUX’ versus ‘NOUS’) ? / In this thesis I demonstrate how do the imaginaries of Serbian nation, of Occident and of ‘universal’ Values (democracy, human rights, tolerance), constructed in the journal published by the SOC serve as factors of conservation and protection of the social position of the Church, its social and political interests in the sense of national religious institution in the Serbian society. The ‘resistance’ to change allows the construction of social imaginaries that we comprehend as social representations with a tendency to become (again) or to impose them as a dominant vision of the Serbian society. I studied the discourse in the ‘Orthodoxy’ journal and the social actors that published their articles in order to demonstrate the process of the creation of social imaginaries and the tentative to present them publicly/in the public sphere as dominant currents of social thoughts on Serbian nation, Occident and ‘universal’ values. I answered to the following questions:- The way national tradition is “traditionalized”, national culture is idealized and national identity is sacralized.- How the imaginary of Europe and European/western culture (‘THEM) are constructed in an opposition to the imaginary of a Serbian nation (‘US’)?- How the values of democracy, human rights and tolerance are imagined through this opposed imaginary construction (‘US’ vs ‘THEM’)?