O dióxido de manganês (MnO2) é um catalisador eficiente de baixo custo utilizado no cátodo de baterias do tipo metal-ar e células a combustível alcalinas, sendo capaz de promover a redução completa de oxigênio pela rota 4e-. No entanto, o dióxido de manganês é um semicondutor e só pode ser utilizado como material eletródico nos dispositivos mencionados se combinado com algum suporte condutor. O suporte condutor mais utilizado para este fim é o carbono em pó. Entretanto, este material não possui estabilidade suficiente nas condições operacionais das células alcalinas, sendo convertido gradativamente em CO2. Uma das possíveis estratégias para tentar minimizar esta deficiência é incrementar a condutividade eletrônica do óxido puro pela dopagem com alguns cátions metálicos. Sendo assim, este trabalho tem como objetivo geral pesquisar de maneira sistemática o efeito da dopagem de dióxido de manganês com alguns cátions metálicos, como o Bi3+e Ce4+ nas propriedades físico-químicas e eletrocatalíticas deste óxido, visando o uso dos mesmos como em cátodos de baterias recarregáveis do tipo Zn-ar. As análises das características morfológicas dos catalisadores por meio de MEV e TEM mostram que os óxidos de manganês são gerados na forma de nano-bastões de 50 a 100 nm de comprimento. Os óxidos puros e dopados com bismuto e cério apresentam estruturas tetragonais típicas, ocorrendo expansão da célula unitária dos óxidos dopados pela troca de íons manganês pelos correspondentes dopantes na rede cristalina de MnO2. Os resultados eletroquímicos sugerem um aumento de condutividade do óxido dopado que possibilita seu uso sem mistura com carbono. Além disso, observa-se que a RRO é catalisada por um mecanismo que envolve a transferência de 4e- nestes materiais com participação de peróxido como intermediário. O óxido de manganês dopado com Bi apresentou promissor desempenho catalítico para a RDO, o que junto com os demais resultados apresentados para a RRO o qualificou a funcionar como o catalisador bifuncional mais promissor de todos os estudados em baterias do tipo metal-ar. Experimentos realizados em mini baterias do tipo Zn-ar demonstraram a total capacidade do catalisador dopado com bismuto operar como catalisador do eletrodo de ar, resultando num desempenho superior ao de um catalisador convencional de MnO2/C. / Manganese dioxide is at the same time an efficient and low-cost material used as cathode catalyst in the air electrode of metal-air and alkaline fuel cells, capable to promote the complete reduction of oxygen thru the 4e- mechanism. However, manganese dioxide is a semiconductor and can be used as electrodic material in the mentioned devices only combined with a conductor support. High surface area carbon powder is the most commonly used material for such purpose. The problem is that carbon suffers from severe instabilities in the experimental conditions that fuel cells and metal-air batteries operates, being gradually converted into CO2. A possible strategy to overcome or at least minimize the low oxide conductivity is by doping this material with some metallic cations. In this sense, the main purpose of this work was the systematic investigation of the physicochemical and electrocatalytic properties of Bi3+ and Ce4+ doped manganese dioxide materials used as cathode catalysts in the air electrode of alkaline type Zn-air batteries. The morphologic characterization performed SEM and TEM revealed that pure as well cation doped MnO2 are formed as poly dispersed nanorods with 50-100 nm length. Both pure and doped materials presented typical tetragonal structures, although a cell expansion was observed in the doped oxides caused by the exchange of some manganese cations by the doping counter parts. Electrochemical results suggest that a material with increased conductivity results from the doping process, allowing it to operate as air catalyst without the use of a carbon support. Besides, it is observed that the oxygen reduction reaction proceeds thru the 4e- mechanism on the doped oxides involving hydrogen peroxide as intermediate. The Bi doped oxide presented the best performance for the oxygen evolution reaction among all catalysts investigated. This result together with the superior performance for the oxygen reduction reaction presented by this material suggest that Bi doped MnO2 is a potential candidate to operate as an air catalyst of rechargeable alkaline metal-air batteries. Experiments conducted in a mini Zn-air battery using Bi doped MnO2 as air catalyst corroborated this observation.

This thesis describes the design, synthesis and reactivity of bimetallic complexes of doubly-pillared Schiff-base calixpyrrole ligands. Chapter One introduces the oxygen reduction reaction in light of the global energy scenario at present and in the future. Compounds and materials known to catalyse this reaction are discussed, with particular focus on transition metal complexes of pyrrole-containing macrocycles and the ability of these compounds to act as catalysts in redox reactions. Chapter Two describes the design and synthesis of several of the macrocyclic ligands developed during this project. The wide range of metals and geometries supported by one of the ligands, H4L, are outlined and include complexes of alkali-metals (Li, K), a rare earth metal (Mg), transition metals (Pd, Fe) and an actinide (UO2 2+). Chapter Three presents the use of [Co2(L)] for the reduction of dioxygen to water. The redox behaviour of the complex and its ability to reversibly bind oxygen were evaluated. The catalytic activity of [Co2(L)] was investigated in solution by UV-Vis spectrophotometry and electrochemically by rotating ring-disk electrochemistry. In Chapter Four, the ability of [Zn2(L)] to bind anions is described. Isothermal microcalorimetry, NMR, UV-Visible spectrophotometry, and fluorophotometry were used to study the de-aggregation of the anion free complex and the subsequent anion binding event. The stability of the complexes was estimated by DFT calculations. Chapter Five outlines the synthesis of complexes of L for other transition metals relevant to small molecule activation. Chapter Six contains a conclusion and suggestions on further investigations to carry out. Chapter Seven presents the full experimental details and analytical data for this work.

Este trabalho teve como objetivo estudar a atividade eletrocatalítica da matriz Printex 6L contendo o modificador organometálico ftalocianina de prata nos percentuais 0,5; 1,0; 3,0 e 5,0% m/m para a Reação de Redução de Oxigênio (RRO). Para isso, fezse a constatação da incorporação do modificador por Fluorescência de Raios - X (FRX), o estudo da estabilidade dos catalisadores pela técnica de voltametria cíclica, bem como a avaliação da eficiência de corrente para eletrogeração de H2O2 a partir dos dados coletados na voltametria de varredura linear utilizando um sistema de eletrodo de discoanel rotatório (RRDE). A análise dos 40 ciclos obtidos para a voltametria cíclica revelou que os materiais contendo 0,5; 1,0; 3,0 e 5,0% m/m de ftalocianina de prata suportados na matriz de carbono amorfo apresentaram picos correspondentes a reações redox atribuídos à presença de impurezas, os quais desapareceram logo nos primeiros ciclos. O estudo da eficiência de corrente e número de elétrons envolvidos na RRO para os catalisadores avaliados mostraram uma queda na eficiência de corrente em relação ao padrão 2 elétrons Printex 6L (H2O2% = 92% e nt = 2,1), para os catalisadores contendo 0,5% (H2O2% = 62%), 1,0% (H2O2% = 76%) e 5% (H2O2% = 69%) de ftalocianina de prata, bem como aumento no número de elétrons envolvidos na RRO (nt = 2,8, 2,4, 2,6, respectivamente). Para o material contendo 3,0% de ftalocianina de prata, obteve-se eficiência de corrente para peróxido de hidrogênio e número de elétrons envolvidos na reação semelhante aos do padrão 2 elétrons, Printex 6L (3% Ft-Ag: H2O2% = 89% e nt = 2,2) . Avaliando as curvas de Koutecký-Levich obtidas para os materiais modificados, observou-se a semelhança da inclinação das retas correspondentes ao Printex 6L e ao material 3% Ft-Ag, mostrando que estes possuem comportamento similar, o que também é observado nos resultados obtidos anteriormente. No entanto, os materiais estudados apresentaram rendimento para a RRO via 2 elétrons inferiores ao Printex não modificado, indicando que a modificação do Printex com a Ft-Ag não é interessante para a obtenção de H2O2. / The objective of this work was to study the electrocatalytic activity of the carbon black containing the organometallic modifier silver phthalocyanine in the percentages 0.5, 1.0, 3.0 and 5.0% m / m for the Oxygen Reduction Reaction (ORR). For this, I studied the incorporation of the modifier by X-Ray Fluorescence, the stability of the catalysts by the cyclic voltammetry technique, as well as the evaluation of the current efficiency for H2O2 electrogeneration from the data Collected in linear scanning voltammetry using a rotatory disc-ring electrode system (RRDE). The analysis of the 40 cycles obtained for cyclic voltammetry showed that carbon materials containing 0.5, 1.0, 3.0 and 5.0% w/w of silver phthalocyanine had peaks corresponding to redox reactions of impurities, which disappeared as early as the first cycles. The study of the current efficiency and number of electrons involved in the RRO for the catalysts evaluated showed a decrease in the current efficiency in relation to the 2 Printex 6L (H2O2% = 92% and nt = 2.1) electrons for the catalysts containing 0.5% (H2O2% = 62%), 1.0% (H2O2% = 76%) and 5% (H2O2% = 69%) of silver phthalocyanine, as well as increase in the number of electrons involved in RRO (nt = 2.8, 2.4, 2.6, respectively). For the material containing 3.0% silver phthalocyanine, it was obtained current efficiency for hydrogen peroxide and the number of electrons involved in the reaction similar to the standard 2 electrons, Printex 6L (3% Ft-Ag: H2O2% = 89% e nt = 2.2). By evaluating the Koutecký-Levich curves obtained for the modified materials, we observed the similarity of the inclination of the lines corresponding to Printex 6L and the material 3% Ft-Ag, showing that they have similar behavior, which is also observed in the obtained results previously. However, the materials studied presented yield for the RRO via 2 electrons lower than the unmodified Printex, indicating that the modification of the Printex with the Ft-Ag is not interesting to obtain H2O2.

Os processos oxidativos avançados (POA) são uma alternativa para complementar os processos clássicos de tratamento de efluentes que podem não ser eficientes para remoção de alguns tipos de poluentes como, por exemplo, os poluentes emergentes. Os POA se baseiam na geração de espécies altamente reativas (radicais hidroxila), a partir de peróxido de hidrogênio (H2O2), que oxidam os poluentes. O H2O2 pode ser eletrogerado in situ pela reação de redução de oxigênio (RRO) no meio reacional. O uso de eletrodos de difusão gasosa (EDG) altamente porosos proporciona o suprimento de oxigênio na interface eletrodo/solução podendo aumentar a velocidade da RRO. O uso de modificadores como quinonas e azocompostos imobilizados à matriz de carbono dos EDG podem aumentar a geração de H2O2. Portanto, os modificadores orgânicos Sudan Red 7B (SR7B), metil-p-benzoquinona (MPB), ácido antraflávico (AA) e antraquinona-2-ácido carboxílico (A2CA) foram adicionados em diferentes teores ao carbono Printex L6 (CP) e microcamadas porosas destes materiais foram estudados por voltametria cíclica e de varredura linear em eletrodo de disco-anel rotatório (RRDE). Os materiais contendo 0,5% de SR7B e 5,0% de MPB levaram a aumento na eficiência de geração de H2O2 para 86,2 e 85,5%, respectivamente, em relação ao CP puro que levou a 82,8%. EDG de CP modificados com 0,5% de SR7B foram construídos com telas metálicas em sua faces externas e a aplicação de densidades de corrente de 75, 100 e 150 mA cm-2 levou a uma maior eletrogeração de H2O2. Em densidades de corrente de 75 mA cm-2, o EDG modificado gerou 1020,1 mg L-1 de H2O2 com consumo energético de 118,0 kWh kg-1 de H2O2, constante cinética aparente de 37,3 mg L-1 min-1 e eficiência de corrente de 17,9%, enquanto o EDG de CP puro gerou menor concentração de H2O2; 717, 3 mg L-1, com maior consumo energético; 168,5 kWh kg-1, menor constante cinética aparente; 21,4 mg L-1 min-1, e menor eficiência de corrente; 12,6%. Portanto, o EDG modificado poderia ser empregado em sistemas que precisem de altas gerações de H2O2. / The advanced oxidation processes (AOP) are an alternative to the classical processes of treatment of effluents that may not be effective for the removal of some types of pollutants such as emerging pollutants. The AOP are based on the highly reactive species (hydroxyl radicals) from hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which oxidize pollutants. H2O2 can be electrogenerated in situ by the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) in the reaction medium. The use of highly porous gas diffusion electrodes (GDE) provides the supply of oxygen at the electrode/solution interface, which can increase the RRO speed. The use of modifiers such as quinones and azocompounds immobilized on the carbon matrix of GDE may increase H2O2 generation. Therefore, the organic modifiers Sudan Red 7B (SR7B), methyl-p-benzoquinone (MPB), anthraflavic acid (AA) and anthraquinone-2-carboxylic acid (A2CA) were added in different contents to carbon Printex L6 (CP) and microporous layers of these materials were studied by cyclic voltammetry and linear sweep voltammetry on a rotating ring- disc electrode (RRDE). Materials with 0.5% of SR7B and 5.0% of MPB increased the current efficiency for electrogeneration of H2O2 to 86.2 and 85.5%, respectively, in relation to pure CP that leaded to 82.8%. GDE of CP modified with 0.5% of SR7B were constructed with metallic screens on their outer faces and an application of current densities of 75, 100 and 150 mA cm-2 led to a greater electrogeneration of H2O2. At current densities of 75 mA cm-2, the modified GDE generated 1020.1 mg L-1 of H2O2 with energy consumption of 118.0 kWh kg-1 of H2O2, apparent kinetic constant of 37.3 mg L-1 min-1 and current efficiency of 17.9%, while GDE of pure CP generated lower H2O2 concentration; 717, 3 mg L-1, with higher energy consumption; 168.5 kWh kg-1, lower apparent kinetic constant; 21.4 mg L-1 min-1, and lower current efficiency; 12.6%. Therefore, the modified GDE could be applied in systems that require high generations of H2O2.

Electrocatalysis is key to both sensitive electrochemical sensing and efficient electrochemical energy conversion. Despite high catalytic activity, traditional metal catalysts have poor stability, low selectivity, and high cost. Metal-free, carbon-based materials are emerging as alternatives to metal-based catalysts because of their attractive features including natural abundance, environmental friendliness, high electrical conductivity, and large surface area. Altering surface functionalities and heteroatom doping are effective ways to promote catalytic performance of carbon-based catalysts. The first chapter of this dissertation focuses on developing electrode modification methods for electrochemical sensing of biomolecules. After electrochemical pretreatment, glassy carbon demonstrates impressive figures-of-merit in detecting small, redox-active biomolecules such as DNA bases and neurotransmitters. The results highlight a simplified surface modification procedure for producing efficient and highly selective electrocatalysts. The next four chapters focus on evaluating nitrogen-doped carbon nano-onions (𝑛-CNOs) as electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction and CO2 reduction. 𝑛-CNOs exhibit excellent electrocatalytic performance toward O2 to H2O reduction, which is a pivotal process in fuel cells. 𝑛-CNOs demonstrate excellent resistance against CO poisoning and long-term stability compared to state-of-the-art Pt/C catalysts. In CO2 electrochemical conversion, 𝑛-CNOs demonstrate significant improvement in catalytic performance toward reduction of CO2 to CO with a low overpotential and high selectivity. The outstanding catalytic performance of 𝑛-CNOs originates from the asymmetric charge distribution and creation of catalytic sites during incorporation of nitrogen atoms. High contents of pyridinic and graphitic N are critical for high catalytic performance. This work suggests that carbon-based materials can be outstanding alternatives to traditional metal-based electrocatalysts when their microstructures and surface chemistries are properly tailored.

Die vorliegende Arbeit befasste sich mit der Entwicklung neuer Hangmankomplexe, die auf ihre katalytischen Fähigkeiten bei der Wasseroxidation oder bei der Sauerstoffreduktion hin untersucht wurden. Diese beiden katalytischen Reaktionen sind von entscheidender Rolle bei der Speicherung erneuerbarer Energien in Form einer chemischen Bindung. Des Weiteren wurden im Rahmen dieser Arbeit mechanistische Studien an bekannten Katalysatorsystemen mittels verschiedener spektroskopischer Methoden durchgeführt. Als Referenzsystem bei der katalytischen Wasseroxidation diente der Komplex [Ru(tpy)(bpy)(OH2)]2+ (bpy = 2,2′-bipyridin, tpy = 2,2′;6′,2″-terpyridin), welcher nach einer bereits publizierten Vorschrift synthetisiert werden konnte. Durch die Kombination des bekannten Hangmansystems von NOCERA et al. mit dem Komplex [Ru(tpy)(bpy)(OH2)]2+ konnte eine neue Klasse von Wasseroxidationskatalysatoren geschaffen werden Die Hangmankomplexe konnten in sehr guten Ausbeuten synthetisiert und vollständig charakterisiert werden. Es konnte erstmalig gezeigt werden, dass diese Komplexe in der Lage sind, eine intramolekulare basenassistierte Wasseroxidation zu katalysieren. Bei der Verwendung des Hanmgankatalysators mit Iodidligang und Perchlorat als nicht koordinierenden Anions mit einer TON von 21,5 nach acht Stunden (beschränkt auf 25 Zyklen) im Vergleich zu den anderen Ruthenium Hangmankomplexen die größte katalytische Aktivität auf und stand damit im Vordergrund weiterer Untersuchungen. Durch die Verwendung von (NH4)2[Ce(NO3)6] (CAN) als Oxidationsmittel war die Katalyse des Hangmankomplexes in homogenen Katalysesystemen lediglich auf sehr niedrige pH-Werte beschränkt, was zur Verlangsamung der Katalysegeschwindigkeit (TOF) führte. Mittels UV-Vis-Spektroskopie konnte die Bildung hochvalenter RuIII-OH- und RuIV=O Intermediate durch schrittweise Oxidation des Rutheniumzentrums mit CAN nachgewiesen werden. Durch MALDI MS/MS Experimente ist es zudem gelungen, den Hangmaneffekt, der durch den Einbau einer Carbonsäurefunktion herbeigeführt wurde, zu beweisen, da die Existenz eines zweiten Wassermoleküls in der zweiten Koordinationssphäre bestätigt werden konnte. Dieser seltene Einblick legte nahe, dass ein zweites Wassermolekül durch Wasserstoffbrückenbindungen so in die Struktur eingelagert wurde, dass die Ausbildung der O O Bindung bei der Wasseroxidation unterstützt wird. Der Verwendung des Hangmankomplexes in heterogenen Katalysesystemen war ebenfalls erfolgreich: Durch den Einsatz von Nafion-beschichteten ITO-Glass-Elektroden war es gelungen, den Hangmankomplex auf einer Oberfläche zu immobilisieren. Dadurch konnten elektrochemische Untersuchungen in allen pH-Bereichen, ohne auf Löslichkeitseffekte und Oxidationsmittel Rücksicht zu nehmen, durchgeführt werden. Bei der Bestimmung der onset-Potentiale (Potential, bei dem die Wasseroxidation beginnt) in verschiedenen wässrigen Pufferlösungen zeigte der Hangmankomplex ein zum Referenzkomplex [Ru(tpy)(bpy)(OH2)]2+ stark verändertes Verhalten. Diese pH Abhängigkeit war auf den Protonierungszustand der freien Carbonsäuregruppe zurückzuführen ist. Durch die Auswertung der onset Potentiale war es möglich, den pks Wert der Carbonsäure abzuschätzen; dieser liegt bei etwa 4,6. Es konnte außerdem gezeigt werden, dass bei diesem pH Wert der Hangmankomplex, wie erwartet, eine maximale Umsatzfrequenz bei der Wasseroxidation besitzt; sie ist viermal höher als die des Referenzsystems [Ru(tpy)(bpy)(OH2)]2+. So erreichte der Referenzkomplex innerhalb der ersten Stunde der Elektrokatalyse eine TOF von 10,8 ± 0,11 h-1, welche durch den Hangmanliganden auf eine TOF von 45,6 ± 0,46 h-1 gesteigert werden konnte. Im Gegensatz dazu ließ sich bei den pH-Werten 3 und 7, wo die Carbonsäuregruppe vollständig protoniert bzw. deprotiert vorliegt, kein signifikanter Unterschied in der Katalyseaktivität beider Komplexe feststellen. Es ist demnach gelungen, die katalytische Aktivität von [Ru(tpy)(bpy)(OH2)]2+ durch den Einbau einer Hangmanfunktion signifikant zu steigern. Ein weiterer Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit lag in der Synthese und Charakterisierung neuer Hangman porphyrinbasierter Sauerstoffreduktionskatalysatoren, welche durch Polymerisation auf intramolekulare Wechselwirkungen innerhalb des Polymers, die das katalytische Verhalten beeinflussen, untersucht werden sollten. Für die Polymerisation der Sauerstoffreduktions-katalysatoren wurden neue Porphyrinsysteme entwickelt. Diese bestanden einerseits aus para-bromphenylsubstituierten und andererseits aus 3 thiophensubstituierten Porphyrinen, welche als Hangmankomplexe und tetrafunktionalisierte Porphyrine synthetisiert und vollständig charakterisiert werden konnten. Die Polymerisation der Komplexe konnte über die meso-Substituenten am Porphyrinring durch Ni(COD)2 in einer YAMAMOTO-Polymerisation und mit CuI in einer SONOGASHIRA-Polymerisation, sowie oxidativ via Elektrolyse auf einer FTO beschichteten Glaselektrode erreicht werden. Gerade die Polymerisation der para-bromfunktionalisierten Porphyrine nach SONOGASHIRA zeigte eine sehr gute Reproduzierbarkeit. Es konnten mittels BET-Analysen gleichbleibend große Oberflächen für die gebildeten Polymere ermittelt werden. Die nachfolgenden elektrochemisch katalysierten Untersuchungen legten nahe, dass eine Aktivität in der Sauerstoffreduktion besteht. Jedoch wurde durch die Polymerisation der Komplexe keine Verbesserung der katalytischen Eigenschaften für die Hangmansysteme im Vergleich zu den unfunktionalisierten Systemen erreicht, was vermutlich an der Wahl des pH Werts liegt. Dennoch konnte präparativ eine Methode aufgezeigt werden, um einfache Porphyrine und Hangmanporphyrine zu polymerisieren und so für heterogene Katalysen zugänglich zu machen. Ein weiterer wichtiger Teil dieser Arbeit waren Untersuchungen von Hangmanporphyrinkomplexen mittels sowohl oberflächenverstärkter Resonanz-Raman-Spektroskopie (surface enhanced resonance Raman, SERR) als auch oberflächenverstärkter IR-Absorptions-Spektroskopie (surface enhanced-infrared-absorption, SEIRA). Dies waren die ersten Studien an immobilisierten Eisenporphyrinkomplexen, die den Einfluss der Carboxylgruppe der Hangmanfunktion auf eine mögliche Substrataktivierung analysierten. Dabei diente der Methylestergeschützte Komplex von NOCERA et al. bei allen Untersuchungen als Referenzsystem. Die beiden Komplexe Hangmanporphyrinkomplexe mit Eisen, mit freier und geschützter Carbonsäure, wurden auf einer Goldoberfläche auf einer selbstangeordneten Monolage (SAM), die mit Imidazol-Endgruppen versehen war, immobilisiert. Die Gold bzw. Silberoberfläche diente als Elektrode, um über Potentialveränderung das Redoxverhalten zu beobachten. Durch SEIRA Differenzspektren konnte der Protonierungsgrad der Carboxylgruppe bei verschiedenen pH-Werten bestimmt werden. Zu diesem Zweck wurde die Veränderung einer intensiven Bande bei 1737 cm-1 mit sinkendem pH Wert verfolgt. Über die normierte Intensität wurde eine Titrationskurve erhalten, mit deren Hilfe erstmalig direkt der pKs-Wert der Hangmangruppe (3,4 ± 0,2) bestimmt werden konnte. Durch zeitaufgelöste SERR Spektroskopie konnte die heterogene Elektronentransfergeschwindigkeit kHET für die Reduktion des Eisen(III)metallzentrums erhalten werden. Dabei wurde festgestellt, dass beim Methylester nur eine geringe Veränderung der kHET mit Variation des pH-Wertes auftritt, jedoch das Gegenteil für die freie Carbonsäure zutrifft. Hier verändert sich die kHET stark in Abhängigkeit vom pH-Wert und somit auch vom Protonierungsgrad der funktionellen Gruppe. Durch den Einsatz von deuterierten Pufferlösungen wurde für den geschützten Komplex kein kinetischer Isotopeneffekt gefunden, was sehr wahrscheinlich darauf zurückzuführen ist, dass die Methylesterfunktion nicht in den Redoxprozess am Eisenzentrum involviert ist. Anders ist es bei der freien Carbonsäure: Hier stieg die Elektronentransferrate um das etwa 10-fache an und ergibt folglich einen inversen kinetischen Isotopeneffekt. Mit Hilfe dieser Erkenntnisse aus den ermittelten Elektronentransfergeschwindigkeiten, dem Redoxverhalten von FeII/III und dem Protonierungsgrad der Carbonsäurefunktion ließ sich ein Mechanismus für die ablaufenden Prozesse postulieren, der im Wesentlichen von zwei Transferreaktionen ausgeht. Zum einen dem Elektronentransfer (ET) von der Elektrode zum Eisenzentrum und zum anderen von einem Protonentransfer (PT) zum sechsten Liganden am Eisenzentrum des Porphyrins. Durch die Interpretation der SERR- und SEIRA-Spektroskopie konnte bewiesen werden, dass der Protonierungsgrad der Carbonsäurefunktion am Hangmankomplex tatsächlich den ET und den PT beeinflusst. Nur unter neutralen und schwach basischen Bedingungen scheint ein PCET-Mechanismus am wahrscheinlichsten. / Major fuel sources for the world’s energy supply are carbon-based (gas, oil, coal), with an associated emission of climate-damaging carbon dioxide. Therefore, we need a change from a fossil fuels based energy system to a system of renewable energy. The solution of these energy problems is the development of clean and sustainable fuel technologies. One possible pathway is the splitting of water into hydrogen and oxygen to drive a hydrogen based society. The oxidation of water into protons and dioxygen by a proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) is the critical - high-energetic - half reaction of this process. [Ru(tpy)(bpy)(OH2)]2+ (bpy = 2,2′-bipyridine, tpy = 2,2′;6′,2″-terpyridine) is the archetype of many known single-site ruthenium complexes used for catalytic water oxidation. Its efficiency is likely influenced by installing a proton-donor/acceptor functionality in proximity to the catalytic site because the reaction mechanism is believed to occur by nucleophilic attack of a water molecule on a high-valent metal–oxo species assisted by hydrogen-bonding interactions. Thus, a new metal complex based on the „Hangman“ motive was synthesized and characterized. The known [Ru(tpy)(bpy)(OH2)]2+-unit is connected to a xanthene backbone with a carboxylic acid-function in proximity to the catalytic site. The proof of the catalytic activity and mechanistic investigations are the target of current work. Iron hangman complexes exhibit improved catalytic properties regarding O2 and H2O2 reduction, which are attributed to the presence of a proton donating group in defined vicinity of the catalytic metal centre. Surface enhanced resonance Raman (SERR) and IR (SEIRA) spectro-electrochemistry has been applied concomitantly for the first time to analyse such iron hangman porphyrin complexes attached to electrodes in aqueous solution. While the SERR spectra yield information about the redox state of the central iron, the SEIRA spectra show protonation and deprotonation events of the 2nd coordination sphere. To investigate the influence of a proton active hanging group on the heterogeneous electron transfer between the iron porphyrin and the electrode, two hangman complexes with either an acid or ester functional group were compared. Using time resolved SERR spectroscopy the electron transfer rates of both complexes were determined. Complexes with an acid group showed a slow electron transfer rate at neutral pH that increased significantly at pH 4, while complexes with an ester group exhibited a much faster, but pH independent rate. SEIRA measurements were able to determine directly for the first time a pKa value of 3.4 of a carboxylic hanging group in the immobilized state that shifted to 5.2 in D2O buffer solution. The kinetic data showed an increase of the heterogeneous electron transfer rate with the protonation degree of the acid groups. From these results, we propose a PCET which is strongly modulated by the protonation state of the acid hanging group via hydrogen bond interactions.

Kern der vorliegenden Arbeit ist die Anwendung quantenchemischer Methoden auf Probleme der elektrochemischen Katalyse vor dem Hintergrund der Sauerstoffreduktion, wie sie an kohlenstoffgeträgerten Platinkatalysatoren abläuft. In diesem Zusammenhang werden die Stabilität des Katalysatorsystems und der Mechanismus der Sauerstoffreduktion untersucht, sowie ein Algorithmus zur Berechnung von Molekülen unter einem gegebenen Potential vorgestellt. Zuerst werden die Wechselwirkungen von Platinnanopartikeln mit polyzyklischen Aromaten als Modellverbindungen des Katalysatormaterials untersucht. Weiterhin wird untersucht, wie Modifikationen des Kohlenstoffträgers und variierende Größe des Platinsystems diese Wechselwirkungen beeinflussen. Weiterhin beschäftigt sich diese Arbeit mit dem Reaktionsmechanismus der Sauerstoffreduktion. Zu diesem Zweck wird das Zersetzungsverhalten von H2O2 als mögliches Intermediat der Sauerstoffreduktion an Platinoberflächen untersucht. Weiterhin wird geprüft, inwieweit dem Elektrolyten hinzugefügte Ionen die Zersetzungsreaktionen beeinflussen. Abschließend werden Rückschlüsse auf den Reaktionspfad der Sauerstoffreduktion gezogen. Zuletzt wird ein theoretischer Ansatz zur Berechnung von Systemen im Rahmen der Dichtefunktionaltheorie vorgestellt, bei dem nicht die Anzahl der Elektronen, sondern das elektrochemische Potential vorgegeben ist und die Elektronenzahl potentialabhängig modifiziert wird. Ebenso wird die Relevanz von Rechnungen mit konstantem Potential demonstriert.

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) offer the advantages of (i) employing less expensive catalysts compared to the expensive Pt catalyst used in proton exchange membrane fuel cells and (ii) directly using hydrocarbon fuels without requiring external fuel reforming due to the high operating temperature. However, the conventional high operating temperatures of 800 - 1000 °C lead to interfacial reactions and thermal expansion mismatch among the components and limitations in the choice of electrode and interconnect materials. These problems have prompted a lowering of the operating temperature to an intermediate range of 500 - 800 °C, but the poor oxygen reduction reaction kinetics of the conventional La[subscript 1-x]Sr[subscript x]MnO₃ perovskite cathode remains a major obstacle for the intermediate temperature SOFC. In this regard, cobalt-containing oxides with perovskite or perovskite-related structures have been widely investigated, but they suffer from large thermal expansion coefficient (TEC) mismatch with the electrolytes. With an aim to lower the TEC and maximize the electrochemical performance, this dissertation focuses on perovskite-related and trigonal RBaCo₄O₇-based oxide cathode materials. First, the effect of M = Fe and Cu in the perovskite-related layered LnBaCo₂₋xMxO₊[delta] (Ln = Nd and Gd) oxides has been investigated. The Fe and Cu substitutions lower the polarization resistance and offer fuel cell performance comparable to that of La[subscript 1-x]Sr[subscript x]CoO₃₋[delta] perovskite due to improved chemical stability with the electrolyte and a better matching of the TEC with those of standard electrolytes. Second, the perovskite-related intergrowth oxides Ln(Sr,Ca)₃Fe₁.₅Co₁.₅O₀ and La₁.₈₅Sr₁.₁₅Cu[subscript 2-x]Co[subscript x]O[subscript 6 +delta] and their composites with gadolinia-doped ceria (GDC) have been investigated. The electrical conductivity, TEC, and catalytic activity increase with increasing Co content. The composite cathodes exhibit enhanced electrochemical performance due to lower TEC and increased triple-phase boundary. Third, RBa(Co,Zn)₄O₇ (R = Y, Ca, and In) oxides with a trigonal structure and tetrahedral-site Con+ ions have been investigated. The chemical instability normally encountered with this class of oxides has been overcome by appropriate cationic substitutions as in (Y₀.₅Ca₀.₅)Ba(Co₂.₅Zn₁.₅)O₇ and (Y₀.₅In₀.₅)BaCo₃ZnO₇. With an ideal matching of TEC with those of standard electrolytes, the RBa(Co,Zn)₄O₇ (R = Y, Ca, and In) + GDC composite cathodes exhibit low polarization resistance and electrochemical performance comparable to that of perovskite oxides. / text

In the past decade, rechargeable batteries attracted the attention from the researchers in search for renewable and sustainable energy sources. Up to date, lithium-ion battery is the most commercialized and has been supplying power to electronic devices and hybrid and electric vehicles. Lithium-ion battery, however, does not satisfy the expectations of ever-increasing energy and power density, which of their limits owes to its intercalation chemistry and the safety.1-2 Therefore, metal-air battery drew much attention as an alternative for its high energy density and a simple cell configuration.1 There are several different types of metal-air batteries that convey different viable reaction mechanisms depending on the anode metals; such as Li, Al, Ca, Cd, and Zn. Redox reactions take place in a metal-air cell regardless of the anode metal; oxidation reaction at the anode and reduction reaction at the air electrode. Between the two reaction, the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) at the air electrode is the relatively the limiting factor within the overall cell reactions. The sluggish ORR kinetics greatly affects the performance of the battery system in terms of power output, efficiency, and durability. Therefore, researchers have put tremendous efforts in developing highly efficient metal air batteries and fuel cells, especially for high capacity applications such as electric vehicles. Currently, the catalyst with platinum nanoparticles supported on carbon material (Pt-C) is considered to exhibit the best ORR activities. Despite of the admirable electrocatalytic performance, Pt-C suffers from its lack of practicality in commercialization due to their prohibitively high cost and scarcity as of being a precious metal. Thus, there is increasing demand for replacing Pt with more abundant metals due economic feasibility and sustainability of this noble metal.3-5 Two different attitudes are taken for solution. The first approach is by optimizing the platinum loading in the formulation, or the alternatively the platinum can be replaced with non-precious materials. The purpose of this work is to discover and synthesize alternative catalysts for metal-air battery applications through optimized method without addition of precious metals. Different non-precious metals are investigated as the replacement of the precious metal including transition metal alloys, transition metal or mixed metal oxides, and chalcogenides. These types of metals, alone, still exhibits unsatisfying, yet worse, kinetics in comparison to the precious metals. Nitrogen-doped carbon material is a recently well studied carbon based material that exhibits great potential towards the cathodic reaction.6 Nitrogen-doped carbon materials are found to exhibit higher catalytic activity compared to the mentioned types of metals for its improved conductivity. Benefits of the carbon based materials are in its abundance and minimal environmental footprints. However, the degradation of these materials has demonstrated loss of catalytic activity through destruction of active sites containing the transition metal centre, ultimately causing infeasible stability. To compensate for these drawbacks and other limits of the nitrogen-doped carbon based catalysts, nitrogen-doped carbon nanotubes (NCNT) are also investigated in the series of study. The first investigation focuses on a development of a simple method to thermally synthesize a non-precious metal based nitrogen-doped graphene (NG) electrocatalyst using exfoliated graphene (Ex-G) and urea with varying amounts of iron (Fe) precursor. The morphology and structural features of the synthesized electrocatalyst (Fe-NG) were characterized by SEM and TEM, revealing the existence of graphitic nanoshells that potentially contribute to the ORR activity by providing a higher degree of edge plane exposure. The surface elemental composition of the catalyst was analyzed through XPS, which showed high content of a total N species (~8 at.%) indicative of the effective N-doping, present mostly in the form of pyridinic nitrogen groups. The oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) performance of the catalyst was evaluated by rotating disk electrode voltammetry in alkaline electrolyte and in a zinc-air battery cell. Fe-NG demonstrated high onset and half-wave potentials of -0.023 V (vs. SCE) and -0.110 V (vs. SCE), respectively. This excellent ORR activity is translated into practical zinc-air battery performance capabilities approaching that of commercial platinum based catalyst. Another approach was made in the carbon materials to further improve the cost of the electrode. Popular carbon allotropes, CNT and graphene, are combined as a composite (GC) and heteroatoms, nitrogen and sulfur, are introduced in order to improve the charge distribution of the graphitic network. Dopants were doped through two step processes; nitrogen dopant was introduced into the graphitic framework followed by the sulfur dopant. The coexistence of the two heteroatoms as dopants demonstrated outstanding ORR performance to those of reported as metal free catalysts. Furthermore, effects of temperature were investigated through comparing ORR performances of the catalysts synthesized in two different temperatures (500 ??? and 900 ???) during the N-doping process (consistent temperature was used for S-doping). Through XPS analysis of the surface chemistry of catalysts produced with high temperature during the N-doping step showed absence of N-species after the subsequent S-doping process (GC-NHS). Thus, the synergetic effects of the two heteroatoms were not revealed during the half-cell testing. Meanwhile, the two heteroatoms were verified in the catalyst synthesized though using low temperature during the N-doping process followed by the S-doping step (GC-NLS). Consequently, ORR activity of the resulting material demonstrated promising onset and half-wave potentials of -0.117 V (vs. SCE) and -0.193 V (vs. SCE). In combination of these investigations, this document introduces thorough study of novel materials and their performance in its application as ORR catalyst in metal air batteries. Moreover, this report provides detailed fundamental insights of carbon allotropes, and their properties as potential elecrocatalysts and essential concepts in electrochemistry that lies behind zinc-air batteries. The outstanding performances of carbon based electrocatalyst are reviewed and used as the guides for further direction in the development of metal-air batteries as a promising sustainable energy resource in the future.

Dans la nature, la réduction du dioxygène est catalysée par des enzymes de la famille des oxydoréductases. A l’heure actuelle, ces protéines spécifiques et efficaces sont envisagés comme biocatalyseurs au sein de biopile enzymatique. Dans ce contexte, l’optimisation de l’orientation et de la connexion d’oxydases multi-cuivre (MCOs) pour la réduction d’O2 sur des matrices de nanotubes carbone (CNTs) fonctionnalisées a été étudiée. Dans un premier temps, le transfert électronique direct de la laccase est optimisé par la fonctionnalisation non covalente de CNTs par divers dérivés hydrophobes. La dynamique moléculaire ainsi que la modélisation électrochimique ont permis la rationalisation des performances des différentes biocathodes développées. Dans une seconde approche, la modification spécifique par des groupements pyrène de la surface de laccases modifiées par mutagénèse a également été envisagée. La fonctionnalisation supramoléculaire de CNTs par des feuillets de graphène fonctionnalisés d’une part, et par des nanoparticules d’or d’autre part, a également permis de favoriser la connexion de laccases. La seconde partie présente l’élaboration d’autres types de biocathodes basées sur la connexion directe de bilirubines oxydases. Plusieurs stratégies de fonctionnalisation covalente et non covalente de CNTs ont été envisagées. Les différentes biocathodes élaborées par l’assemblage supramoléculaire de MCOs et de matériaux nanostructurés délivrent des densités de courant de réduction du dioxygène de plusieurs mA cm-2. Ces nouvelles bioélectrodes combinées à une bioanode qui catalyse l’oxydation du glucose ont permis le développement de biopiles enzymatiques glucose/O2 délivrant des densités maximales de puissances allant de 250 µW cm-2 à 750 µW cm-2 selon les conditions expérimentales. Enfin une bioanode à base d’une hydrogénase hyperthermophile a été développée et associée à une biocathode à base de bilirubine oxydase pour former un nouveau design de biopile H2/O2. Au sein de ce dispositif, la biocathode à diffusion de gaz réduit directement l’oxygène provenant de l’air, ce qui permet de s’affranchir de l’utilisation d’une membrane séparatrice tout en protégeant l’hydrogénase de sa désactivation en présence d’oxygène. Cette nouvelle biopile délivre une densité maximale de puissance de 750 µW cm-2. / The reduction of oxygen is realized in nature by oxidoreductase enzymes. Currently, these highly specific and efficient proteins are considered as biocatalysts for the development of biofuel cells. In this context, optimizing the orientation and the connection of multicopper oxidase (MCOs) for the reduction of O2 on functionalized carbon nanotubes was studied. In the first part of this manuscript, direct electron transfer of laccase is assessed and optimized by the non-covalent functionalization of CNTs by various hydrophobic derivatives. Electrochemical modeling and molecular dynamics enabled the rationalization of the developed biocathodes efficiency. In a second approach, the specific modification by pyrene moieties of laccases surface modified by protein engineered has also been considered. Additionally, supramolecular functionalization of CNTs by modified graphene sheets and gold nanoparticles also helped to promote laccase connection. The second part presents the development of other types of biocathodes based on the direct connection of bilirubin oxidase. Several strategies of covalent and non-covalent CNTs functionalization have been considered. The different biocathodes developed by the supramolecular assembly of nanostructured materials and MCOs delivered current density of several mA cm-2 for oxygen reduction. These new bioelectrodes combined with a bioanode which catalyzes the glucose oxidation have enabled the development of glucose/O2 enzymatic biofuel cells; delivering maximum power densities from 250 µW cm-2 to 750 µW cm-2 depending on the experimental conditions. Finally a hyperthermophilic hydrogenase based bioanode was developed and associated with a bilirubin oxidase-based biocathode to form a new design of H2/O2 biofuel cell. Within this device, the gas diffusion biocathode directly reduces oxygen from the air, which eliminates the use of a separation membrane while protecting the hydrogenase from its deactivation in the presence oxygen. This new biofuel cell delivers a maximum power density of 750 µW cm-2.