Although the patent systems of the United States and Europe have become continuously more similar their underlying legal philosophy continues to be different. This study examines how the two patent philosophies emerged out of different social situations and why and how patent systems can develop similar formal arrangements without experiencing a similar harmonization of underlying philosophy. As patent laws are historically unique to western culture it provides a lens through which to observe its relative social appreciation of industry, technology, commerce, and the role of the law. This study argues that the two separate 'patent philosophies' emerged as results of unique historical situations and that the reason as to why they have been able to maintain their distinct natures is that a similar ideological pressure has not been present since. The patent law of the United States, which is based on an 'inventor philosophy', was the product of the ideological currents of the movement toward American independence. This philosophy is friendly to inventors and entrust them with all responsibility over their inventions. Its individualistic and democratic character resonated well with the country's anti-colonial and anti-monarchical political campaign. A similar ideological pressure to revise fundamental opinions on technology and law has not emerged since. Virtually all European nations are today part of the European Patent Organization which administers the world's only true regional patent office. This European system is based on an 'invention philosophy' which was designed in the late 19th century by German industrialists. This philosophy is anti-monopoly and sees the State as a guardian of the public benefits which arise from technological novelties. Due to German industrial efficiency, it was used to model European patent law. Although both philosophies have proved viable, the case of patent law suggests that the role of legal philosophy must be reduced. Apart from being crucial in the creation of a new legal system, this study argues for the need to drastically reconsider the relationship between substantive and formal law. Both patent philosophies have consistently lost importance over time to the point where they today support two formally very similar systems.

進入知識經濟時代，專利對企業重要性與日俱增，所以要如何將企業或個人的技術變成有價值的專利，這就必須要靠技術加值的配合才能完成。成功案例譬如已轉型為提供技術與服務的電腦大廠IBM，以及擁有大量專利技術的鴻海科技。本研究想瞭解這些企業技術加值的成功經驗是否適用於其他新創公司與研究機構。 本研究針對一個只擁有少量專利的新創公司，以及一個已有豐富專利授權合作的成熟機構，藉由以往企業技術加值專利管理的成功經驗與相關文獻探討原理，透過分析個案背景，研究該個案所面臨的環境，找尋該個案是否在專利管理上還有能改進的地方，並依照專利管理模式提出專利管理的建議。本研究之目的在於以我們所提出的分析和專利管理的建議，提供在台灣的中小企業，或是已有授權經驗的成熟機構在實行專利管理規劃時作為參考，並著手進行適合自己的專利管理規劃。 本研究發現專利管理的策略是與企業成長週期有關，在不同的成長時期應有不同的專利管理策略。但無論何時都需實行專利管理規劃，讓專利管理可以促進技術加值活動，帶給企業更多利潤。而我們可從專利分析知道專利趨勢、競爭對手與潛在被授權人的專利策略，也可以得到研發上的啟發，用以進行專利佈局與專利組合策略。再由市場結構與關係網絡，檢視其潛在市場與關係人結構是否能支撐其專利行銷策略與專利授權。 / Entering the era of knowledge economy, patents have become more and more important to the enterprises. But to make patents valuable, it has to rely on the effort of patent management to turn individuals’ or companies’ techniques into valuable properties. One successful example of patent management is former PC industry emperor --- IBM, where it has became a very profitable technology and service provider now. Another outstanding example is HonHai Technology Group, which already possessed a huge amount of patents. This thesis is meant to find out if these successful experiences in patent management can be applied into other start-up companies and research organizations. In this thesis, we took a start-up company which only has few patents, and a mature organization that already had plentiful patent licensing experience. From the past success in patent management and related principles, we sorted out the theories and discussed them. Through case analysis, we realized what circumstance the case company has encountered, and then we discussed the possible strategies to improve its patent management. At last, we proposed the suggestions of patent management for the case based on patent management model. The purpose of this thesis is to provide the analysis and suggestion about patent management for Taiwan companies to develop the proper strategy of their own. We propose that the strategy of patent management is related to business growth pattern. We should use different patent management method in different growth period. However, it is necessary to plot the plan of patent management anytime, that can accelerate the prosperity of patent management, and it will also bring fortune to the enterprises. By patent analysis, we can realize the trend of technology, the patent management strategy of the competitors and possible assignees. Companies may also get inspired by patent management for their technology research, and then apply the innovations into its strategy of patent development. From the analysis of market structure and relationship network, companies can further verify if the potential market and network is sufficient to support their patent marketing and patent licensing.

This paper looks at the relationship between software patent hoarding and firm litigation involvement. Software patents are relatively new, as the first software patent was granted in 1995. Since that first patent was granted, firms throughout the industry have engaged in a patent ‘arms race’ of sorts. Using data from Lex Machina IP litigation database and the USPTO, this study examines whether patent stock size impacts the incentives for firms to litigate by assessing the total number of law suits software firms are involved in and their litigation involvement broken down by party role. The results indicate that a larger patent portfolio will marginally increase the number of suits a firm files as a plaintiff. The results are inconclusive on the potential deterrence effect a firm can create by hoarding patents to discourage competitor firms from suing them.

<p>The underlying rational behind the protection of intellectual property rights is to strike a balance between the interests of intellectual property rights holders on the one hand and users of protected knowledge on the other hand. This thesis sought to achieve the following objectives: to create a good understanding of the historical development of the primary and secondary legal instruments related to the intellectual property rights/public health debate / to determine to what extent a balance is struck by the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights with reference to the flexibilities provided for in the Treaty, read together with the subsequent World Trade Organization Ministerial Declarations and TRIPS Council Decisions / to evaluate the extent to which selected developing and least developed country members of the World Trade Organization have taken measures to implement the said flexibilities, taking cognizance of their relevant strengths and weaknesses / to suggest ways in which select countries in the developing world specifically India and Zambia can take greater advantage of the flexibilities to promote better access to medicines which taking into consideration various opportunities and threats that are foreseeable / to identify public health aspects of TRIPS that the developing country and least developed countries World Trade Organization members would do well to address in further negotiations.</p>

<p>The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property (TRIPS) ia a multilateral international treaty introduced by the World Trade Organization (WTO) that came into effect on 1 June 1995. At a basic level it attempted to establish minimum standards for the regulation of intellectual property rights within those countries that are members of the WTO and signatories to it. This thesis served a dual purpose. The first leg was to embark on an investigation into TRIPS, criticallt analyzing the provisions of the Agreement. The important aim here was to analyze and discover whether TRIPS is sensitive to weaker countries. The second leg was to probe within the the legislative framework of South Africa and determine whether South Africa as a &quot / developing copuntry&quot / , has complied with the demands as expressed by TRIPS. This investigation was done with specific reference to South African patent law.</p>

A mandate is “a business, or element of a business, in which the subsidiary participates and for which it has responsibilities beyond its national market” (Birkinshaw, 1996, p. 467). In the past MNCs set up subsidiaries as miniature replicas of the parent firm but with a changing global market the role of the subsidiary has developed into holding specific mandates. Much has been written about how subsidiaries gain mandates, but in this paper we focus on what causes a subsidiary to lose its mandate. By using AstraZeneca’s R&amp;D unit in Södertälje as a case we examine the loss of mandates and to what extent technological capabilities are connected to the loss of mandates. The paper shows that explaining the loss of mandates is complex and requires consideration of several perspectives. We here provide a starting point for other researchers to continue upon.

In this dissertation I explore the role and importance of patent strategy for appropriating returns from innovation. In particular, I examine the mechanisms through which firms increase appropriability from patenting by employing complementary resources and capabilities and gauge their contribution to firm performance. To this end, I perform three empirical studies. In the first study, I focus on measuring patent value and demonstrate that the importance of firm resources and capabilities is much higher than previously thought. I interpret these results as providing strong support for the view that the design of patent strategy is crucial for profiting from innovation. In the second study, I look into a sample of technology acquisitions and examine under what circumstances firms profit from combining previously separate patent rights. I demonstrate that the merging of overlapping patent portfolios give rise to inimitable synergies, albeit only in complex technology industries. In addition, I find that firms are more likely to acquire targets with patents when their patent productivity is low, when they have a technologically diverse patent portfolio in complex technology industries and when they face an increased threat of being involved in patent suits. In the third study, I explore the role of patent strategies in the non-technological domain. I demonstrate that recent regulatory changes enabling the patenting of business methods can help patentees capture value from business model and management innovations. Moreover, I find that patenting experience and access to complementary assets are both crucial elements of a patenting strategy aimed at increasing appropriability. Taken together, these studies contribute towards bringing studies of patenting and the resource-based view of the firm closer together, to mutual advantage. This results in a better understanding of the effectiveness of patents at the firm-level and in a clearer operationalization of concepts of resources and resource interdependence.

This thesis examines the impact upon EPO interpretation of European plant patent law of the case Carlsberg and Heineken pertaining to the granting of patents for beer grain enzyme mutations. This analysis will look at current interpretation of the patentability of plant products dependant on the classification of their production process, as well as the extent of the scope of protection granted to these plant patents. This area of law pertains to the exemption of plants from patentability within the European Patent Convention and the Biotech Directive 98/44/EC, with reference to the interpretation of this legal basis within EPO case law. Within this the definition of an ‘essentially biological process’ and the subsequent patentability of the products of these processes is crucial to evaluating why the Carlsberg and Heineken patents were granted and where there remain unanswered questions after this case as to EPO interpretation of European plant patent legislation.   From this basis, it shall be shown that the beer cases of Carlsberg and Heineken mark a turning point in the interpretation of the plant patentability exception and the scope of protection granted to these patents. Changes to legislative interpretation, the industry and economy of beer production, agriculture and the morality of food patents shall all be addressed with regard to the impact of the Carlsberg and Heineken patent decision.

O Brasil foi o quarto país no mundo a ter norma que tratasse sobre direitos de invenção. Além disso, inseriu em seu ordenamento regras de proteção a inventos estrangeiros enquanto ainda não existia uma convenção internacional e reconheceu constitucionalmente o direito de propriedade do inventor mais de cinquenta anos antes de essa discussão se iniciar no plano externo conhecido. Destarte, desde muito cedo temas do direito do inventor estiveram presentes na esfera jurídica país. Ainda, o brasileiro tem por característica a criatividade. Muitos inventos famosos foram criados por nacionais entre os quais o avião, protótipos da máquina de escrever, sistemas de transmissão de vozes por rádio e o identificador de chamadas telefônicas. Quando se contrapõem as afirmações acima, pode-se chegar à impressão inicial de que o direito do inventor no Brasil se desenvolveu, desde muito cedo, para acompanhar a criatividade brasileira, o que, porém, não corresponde à realidade. O presente trabalho tem por objetivo analisar essa complexa história de desenvolvimento legislativo, pois a precocidade do envolvimento com normas de direito do inventor não necessariamente levou à criação de uma estrutura voltada à proteção dos criadores de invenções técnicas. Procura-se analisar o fundamento do direito do inventor no Brasil, tendo como base a perspectiva histórica das fontes, com o intuito de demonstrar que o que gera direito ao criador de invenções técnicas é ato-fato da criação. / Brasilien war weltweit das vierte Land, über eine Norm Erfindungsrecht verfügte. Vor dem Bestehen internationaler Abmachungen fügte es außerdem in seine Vorschriften Schutzregeln für im Ausland gemachte Erfindungen ein. Auf diese Weise waren seit Frühem Themen des Erfindungsrechts im juristischen Bereich Landes präsent. Darüber hinaus ist Kreativität eine markante Eigenschaft vieler Menschen hierzulande. Von Einheimischen wurden mehrere bekannte Erfindungen gemacht, zum Beispiel, das Flugzeug, erste Exemplare von Schreibmaschinen, die Stimmenübertragung über Rundfunk, das Display zum Anzeigen eingehender Anrufe. Stellt man die oben genannten Aussagen entgegen, so kann man de anfänglichen Eindruck bekommen, dass sich das Erfindungsrecht seit Frühem in Brasilien entwickelte, um mit der einheimischen Kreativität Schritt zu halten, was jedoch nicht unbedingt der Realität entspricht. Die vorliegende Arbeit bezweckt, die komplexe Geschichte der Entwicklung von Gesetzen zu analysieren, denn die Vorzeitigkeit der Beteiligung mit juristischen Normen von Erfindern führte nicht unbedingt zum Entwurf einer an den Schutz von wissenschaftlichen Erfindern gewendeten Struktur. Mit dem Zweck zu erläutern, dass der Ausgangspunkt für die Entwicklung von Schutzgesetzen für Erfinder technischer Gegenstände die Tat des erfinderischen Geistes und dessen durchgeführte Aktionen sind, wird weiterhin versucht, die Grundlagen des Erfindungsrechts in Brasilien aus der Sicht historischer Quellen zu analysieren.

L’étude fait un bilan de l’étendue de la protection de l’objet du brevet et de la sécurité juridique. Elle s’appuie sur la législation et les décisions brésiliennes et européennes. L’étude aborde dans un premier temps la détermination de l’objet du brevet lors de sa rédaction: la description est analysée du point de vue de la forme, puis de celui du fond. Ensuite, la revendication est analysée du point de vue de ses structures et de ses conditions de fond.La notion de moyen est définie. Le rôle de la description et de la revendication dans la détermination de l’objet du brevet étant défini, la deuxième partie de l’étude est consacré aux règles d’interprétation. L’analyse constitutionnelle brésilienne est faite en prenant en compte les cadres données par le protocole interprétatif de l’article 69 de la Convention Européen de Brevets. Ensuite, nous proposons des paramètres internes et externes pour guider l’interprétation des revendications et déterminer l’objet du brevet. La démarche vise à assurer au titulaire du brevet le plein droit et aux tiers la sécurité juridique. / The thesis makes a balance between the protection scope of the patent and legal certainty. It is based on the legislation and decisions raised in Brazil andEurope. In this course, it first attacks the determination of the patent object during its drafting: firstly the description is subject of a formal and substantive analysis. Then the claims are analyzed in terms of its structures, as well as of its substantive conditions. The “means” notion is defined. The role of the description and the claims in determining the patent object being defined, the second part of the study is devoted to the rules of the interpretation. A Brazilian constitutional analysis is made taking into account the limits established by the Protocol on the Interpretation of Article 69 of the European Patent Convention. Then, we offer internal and external parameters to guide the interpretation of the claims, and determine the scope ofthe patent. The approach aims to ensure to the patentee the good right, as well as legal certainty to third parties.