Canada’s Patented Medicines (Notice Of Compliance) Regulations fail to achieve the intended purpose of balancing innovation with timely generic market entry. An examination of the inefficiencies created by the Canadian regulations reveals that key features of U.S. pharmaceutical law should be adopted to improve the disjointed regulatory system that impedes generic competition. Specifically, the regulations should be amended to consolidate multiple proceedings into one cause of action that evaluates patent validity. An economic incentive to challenge weak patents should also be introduced in Canada. These features encourage competition without deterring pharmaceutical research and development because only patents that are not truly inventive will be invalidated after a full inquiry. As such, the intellectual property laws will continue to satisfy Canada’s international intellectual property obligations and protect innovative medicines and allow recovery of costs and monopoly profits to new and useful pharmaceutical products.

This work considers international cooperation or harmonization in patent law and analyzes the two main international patent law governance institutions: the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and the World Trade Organization (WTO). A welfarist approach is adopted, proposing that international patent law should improve global welfare, subject to assumptions that the preferences of the world population are heterogeneous, that governments try to maximize the welfare of their citizens, and that international legal organization faces collective action problems. Normatively desirable patent law harmonization reconciles strong reasons for preserving diversity (including the static and dynamic satisfaction of local preferences and adapting to unpredictable change) with strong reasons for cooperation (reducing duplication in patent prosecution, and reconciling imbalanced national externalities, incentives to innovation and costs). The last reason leads to a system of national treatment and minimum standards. The risks presented by the skewed nature of invention are addressed in the international patent system through a form of regional insurance. These reasons for cooperation present two linked but separable collective action problems, supporting the existence of two international institutions to govern patent cooperation. WIPO is best positioned to address duplication in patent prosecution. The WTO is best positioned to address imbalanced national externalities, incentives and costs. However, both the WIPO and the WTO are needed to provide a comprehensive international governance system. Questions about the WTO dispute resolution system, the TRIPs Council, and the WTO’s legitimacy are addressed by advocating a trade stakeholders’ model. Whether international patent law should be seen as a multilateral obligation or a nexus of bilateral obligations is explored. Given diverse national preferences and high uncertainty surrounding the welfare effects of specific patent policies, the process of harmonization is inevitably a political process. This political aspect directly connects the topic of patent law harmonization with the institutional analysis of WIPO and the WTO. The implementation of welfare-enhancing patent law cooperation is best guarded by a process with a wide range of political inputs and transparency. Ultimately, only good international governance can deliver on the potential of the international patent system to promote international innovation, economic growth and world-wide prosperity.

TRIPS strengthened international patent protection, particularly in relation to pharmaceutical patents. A compulsory license mechanism is one of the exceptions from patent protection available under TRIPS. This mechanism applies mainly to domestic market supply. Underdeveloped countries with insufficient pharmaceutical manufacturing capacities are unable to use this exception to import medicines in public health emergencies. To resolve this problem, the WTO General Council’s decision allows the export of generic versions of patented drugs under certain conditions. Canada’s Bill C-9 was the first statute to implement the decision. Bill C-9 bears both humanitarian and TRIPS-like provisions. The role of the Government is unjustifiably limited to participation in administrative and legislative processes, while the main operators in the scheme are the generic manufacturer and partly, the patent holder. This thesis proposes several different models to transform the Bill into a workable system for the export of drugs to underdeveloped countries afflicted with pandemics. / October 2006

The first essay titled “Fundamental Sources of Long-run Labour Productivity Improvements in Canada” examines the importance of Research and Development activities, as well as the stock of public infrastructure, and economic openness as sources of growth in labour productivity in the Canadian economy within the last four decades. The second paper titled “R&D Spillovers, Innovation, and Entry” extends a theoretical framework to analyze the impact of R&D spillovers on entry and the resulting equilibrium market structure. It is shown that the degree of spillovers plays a fundamental role on the number of firms entering the market, their R&D activities, and social welfare. The third paper titled “The Search for New Drugs: A Theory of R&D in the Pharmaceutical Industry” uses a dynamic model of optimal patent design and in the presence of information externalities studies the evolution of technological progress in the context of a pharmaceutical industry.

Studien undersöker konkurrensstrategier med hjälp av immaterialrättsligt skydd: Om, och hur, det är möjligt för ett företag att använda patentskydd som ett starkt konkurrensmedel på en attraktiv marknad?Om våra utvalda respondenter ansåg att patentstrategier leder till diskriminering av konkurrenter och kunder om företag med ensamrätt väljer att nischa sitt produktutbud? Om patenträtten behöver vidareutvecklas för att matcha lagstiftning gällande konkurrens? Är det möjligt att införa en klausul om rätt att utfärda tvångslicenser i Patenträtten som är generaliserbar och lättare att tillämpa än den vedertagna? Detta är en kvalitativ studie, i vilken vi hela tiden strävat efter att få en helhetsför-ståelse. Därför har vi varit öppna med vår tanke med arbetet för våra respondenter, och även försökt hålla oss objektiva genom arbetet. Något som emellanåt varit svårt då vi har en för-förståelse och även en ifrågasättande ansats. I början av arbetet läste vi på och samlade in intressant litteratur för att öka våra kunskaper i ämnet. Vi intervjuade sedan våra respondenter i semi-strukturerade intervjuer utifrån en intervjuguide där ordningen var flexibel. Efter varje intervju fick vi en ökad insikt i problematiken, som vi sökte förankra i litteraturen. Och den fördjupade kunskapen tog vi sedan med oss det till nästa intervju. Därmed ökade vi vår förståelse enligt en hermeneutisk spiral. Intervjuerna har gjorts via mail och personligt möte, några intervjuer har inte kunnat genomföras då respondenterna inte haft tid. Lyckligtvis har dessa respondenters tankar i ämnet publicerats och därför har vi istället refererat till dem där vi ansett det behövas. Vi insåg att vi inte skulle kunna få fram "en sanning" i vår studie, därför har vårt förhållningssätt varit ifrågasättande men med ett försök att förstå helheten. Och att det finns flera perspektiv att se patenträttsproblematiken ur. Resultat & slutsats: Vi har undersökt Lego:s patentstrategier, och fört ett resonemang om att förändra i patenträtten för att effektivisera marknaden, samt diskuterat om Lego med sin ensamrätt nischat sig mot målgruppen pojkar och därmed diskriminerat flickor. Vi har hittat ett antal rättsfall där Lego varit inblandat rörande immaterialrätt, och även artiklar och litteratur som vi finner intressanta. Vi har sedan intervjuat olika professioner som vi anser kan öka vår förståelse i ämnet. Vi får i vissa delar stöd i vårt resonemang kring effektiva marknader, tvångslicenser och reducering av transaktionskostnader. Dock säger alla tre respondenterna att det är svårt att komma till rätta med marknadsmisslyckandena som patentsystemet skapar då inget bättre alternativ finns som kan ersätta dagens system i belöningen av FoU (Forskning och Utveckling). Slutsatsen av vårt resonemang kring patenträtten är att patenträtten borde ses över, vi tror att en förändring kommer att ske i framtiden när Kinas patentmattor skapar problem för Europas företag. Vårt andra resonemang, om Lego diskriminerat konsumentgruppen flickor, fick vi inget gehör för hos våra respondenter, och Lego ville inte uttala sig om det. Men vår slutsats är att diskriminering har förekommit i en dold form. Förslag till fortsatt forskning: I vår undersökning har vi begränsat oss till en intervju via mail med Lego. Det skulle vara intressant att göra en fallstudie av Lego för att ta del av deras kundanalys, vad som påverkat valet av kundsegment samt målgruppen för Legos marknadsföring, och hur valet sedan påverkat deras konkurrensstrategier. Men vi förstår att det kan vara svårt att beviljas tillträde till de strategiska och säkert hemliga analyserna. Ytterligare ett förslag till fortsatt forskning som vi varit inne på lite i uppsatsen, men som skulle kunna fördjupas mer handlar om hur Legos ensamrätt påverkat Lego och dess konkurrenters position på den aktuella marknaden, har det lett till dominans på bekostnad av diskriminering (av konkurrenter)? Uppsatsens bidrag: Vi har funnit uppsatser i ämnet vilka valt att behandla missbruk av dominerande ställning med hjälp av immaterialrättsligt skydd, ur ett juridiskt perspektiv. Vi har i vår uppsats valt att se företeelsen även ur ett marknadsföringsperspektiv med inriktning på affärsstrategier och även ur ett föräldraperspektiv. När affärsjuridiska vapen används som konkurrensstrategi för att diskriminera andra företag, eller diskriminera konsumentgrupper på marknaden, så får det oss att fundera över dagens patenträtts legitimitet på en effektiv marknad. Vi har haft intressanta diskussioner med respondenter som fördjupat vår förståelse för problematiken kring patentstrategier, detta är vårt bidrag till debatten om patenträtten.

The pharmaceutical market is a billon euro industry and the competition on the market is highly intensive. Primarily there are two competitors on the market, partly the originators which provide the market with new drugs, and partly the generics which produce copies of the originators‟ drugs. The originators are able to be granted patent protection of the drug under the European patent system, provided that the drug fulfils the requirements for patentability. During the period of patent protection the generics are not able to produce copies of the drug, but once the duration of the patent has expired the generics are able start the production. Thus, in order to hinder the generics to make copies of the drug, the originators apply various patent strategies. This has been noted by the European Commission, which conducted a sector inquiry of the pharmaceutical market in 2009. The presentation of the competition within the market focused on the applied strategies by the originator and concluded that all measures will be taken to hinder restrictions on the competition. In conjunction, the General Court judged in a recent case that the originator AstraZeneca constituted an infringement of the competition law when their strategies were applied. The complexity of determine whether a strategy is lawful or not, is due to the interface between the intellectual property law and the EC competition law. This implies that the strategy can be lawful under the IP law but unlawful under the competition law. The Court has established that any strategy, regardless of its legality under the IP law, constitutes an infringement of the competition law if it might restrict the competition. The Courts do not provide sufficient guidelines of the conditions that constitute the infringement. Consequently, the strategies‟ legality is at present time uncertain.

The Strategies of the firms in Patent are not only about the future, but also forming the barrier for competitor. For the sake, we should develop the patent strategies and technological position.This study goes to the discussion of technological position by the patent multivariate analysis, and suggest the patent strategy by the difference within and between the groups which were clustered from IC design companies. This study selects twenty gobal IC design companies,which are always on the top25 of the industry.In case1 ,we wonder figure out the technological postion and the path of technology shift.In case2,we can recognize the technological position as industrial position. In case 1, we got four clusters by cluster analysis.Cluster 1 is called SpecialistII,and cluster2 is called Strong Generalist, and cluster 3 is called Specialist I,and cluster 4 is called Weak Generalist. For further observation, the firms with technology shift will shift from cluster 1 to cluster 2 in the same direction.Others still maintain the same strategies in their clusters. In case 2 , we also got four clusters by the analysis. Cluster 1 is called Weak Generalist ,and cluster 2 is called Strong Generalist, and cluster 3 is called Specialist I,and cluster 4 is called Specialist III.As financial results , we got homogeneity within a cluster except cluster 4. Performance between clusters, we made and observed the line chart of trend in the selected financial ratio and we used the median of samples within a cluster. In case 2,it seems heterogeneous in ROA and Price-to-book ratio in the chart.In case1,it is also heterogeneous in ROA and price-to-book ratio.It¡¦s significant and positively correlated in R&D productivity(GrossMargin-to-R&D ratio) between others by the correlation coefficient matrix.It seems to be the proxy to the other financial ratio.

With the rise of knowledge economy and global integration of patterns of development, in order to maintain a high degree of industrial competitiveness, legal and economical way to obtain the patent is the subject of the competing companies. Many colleges and universities in Taiwan and other academic and research institutions are highly value-added R&D capability, patented technology is conducive to good output, the patent also has its unique marketing strategy, so the study of academic institutions, the development of marketing strategy patent case for schools with special characteristics of the case study. The study design was a qualitative research method, through the marketing literature to understand the development trend of the patent, and so the selected patent marketing research framework to measure factors to construct and use the case study of technology licensing for academic institutions, sector depth interview senior managers , followed by interviews by the case of schools to summarize their marketing strategy patents, according to SWOT analysis and five forces analysis of the industry in which the threat environment and competition, together with a breakdown of the marketing strategies used by schools to analyze the combination of STP and Marketing 4P tools to analyze the marketing strategy of the patent cases, the direction the school, the study following recommendations are hereby summarized. 1. R & D should have a patent for the patent the patent strategy of integrated marketing: 2. Schools patent marketing agencies in the industry should increase self-positioning: 3. To enhance marketing decisions should be based on the pursuit of patent royalties to maximize the overall efficiency target: 4. Should be to cultivate a professional marketing personnel engaged in the business of the patent: 5. Patent research and development should strengthen the reverse-developed technologies to provide customized services: 6. Technology licensing authorities to strengthen the innovation and development model to improve the development effectiveness: Schools may, based on their expectations of the patent cases the nature of marketing, integration of academic and industrial research and development of energy required to expand the benefits, create a win-win situation. Also hope that the results of this study can be extended to related areas of research and planning more efficient use of its patented proprietary marketing strategy development and planning capacity, to provide a modicum of academic and industry contributions, in order to create greater effectiveness of patents.

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The knowledge-based economy has been the main source of strength for the growth of enterprise. Due to the constant innovation in technology and shortened product lifespan, current developments cannot deal with the rapid change in industries or compete with other products. As a result, innovative research and patent implementation has become necessary for the existence of an industry. Product research and development consists of high technology, professionalism, and knowledge. Explicit and tacit knowledge is stored either in individual or department data. Patent application can therefore affirm product rights. The study aims to understand the possibility of processing the patent implementation and provide a functional method for research and development. The product is protected by the patent. It also avoids the violation of intellectual property rights when collecting industrial information while advancing product development and innovation.