Master`s thesis in the first part deals with the theoretical description of the basics of photovoltaics, principles of solar cell, failures occurring in solar cells. There were also described diagnostic methods for measuring the solar cells and methods of temperature measurements and control . The second part of the thesis deals with the practical measurements of solar cells by electroluminescence at different temperatures. This chapter also describes measuring workplace of solar cells with temperature control.

This thesis describes the issue of PN junction of photovoltaic cells, photovoltaic effect physics, basic materials used in photovoltaic and their properties, important for the area of photovoltaic. It deals with the problems of magnetism focused on electromagnetic fields. Experimental facility for measuring the influence of magnetic field on the solar cells through the Helmholtz coils was constructed. This work also dealing with the influence of magnetic radiation on photovoltaic cells and the influence of electromagnetic waves on the volt-ampere characteristics of the photovoltaic cell.

The aim of this diploma thesis is the development of research on the topic of the draft mix for network independence. Next is the outline the various design solutions of the battery systems for accumulation electric energy and balance model energy supply system for the selected object. The practical part of diploma thesis deals with necessary resources and the size of batteries for autonomous operation during the summer months and also implements technical and economic studies aimed at finding cost-effective solutions. The work is divided into 6 chapters that contain 16 tables and 18 figures. Diploma thesis brings an option to configure a photovoltaic system and also describes the features, functions and the choice between the most used technologies. Evaluation of results of theoretical methods are described in the final part.

Dans un contexte général d’augmentation de la demande énergétique et de préoccupation croissante face au réchauffement climatique et à la limitation des ressources naturelles, l’utilisation d’énergie solaire devrait augmenter. L’avenir des différentes technologies photovoltaïques dépend évidemment de leur rendement de conversion photovoltaïque et de leur coût mais aussi de la disponibilité des ressources. Les couches minces de kesterite, Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS), Cu2ZnSnSe4 (CZTSe) ou Cu2ZnSn(S,Se)4 (CZTSSe), composées d’éléments abondants dans la croûte terrestre se positionnent en candidat prometteur pour la conversion d’énergie solaire à grande échelle.Dans cette thèse, l’électro-dépôt, un procédé compatible avec des exigences industrielles de production, est utilisé pour déposer un précurseur de cuivre, étain et zinc sur des substrats de 15 × 15 cm2, de composition et épaissseur contrôlables. Ce précurseur est ensuite converti en semiconducteur par traitement thermique en présence de soufre ou de sélénium. Les couches ainsi formées de Cu-Zn-Sn-S ou Cu-Zn-Sn-Se, doivent être uniformes et présenter les propriétés appropriées (phases, composition, morphologie) pour la fabrication de cellules solaires à haut rendement. Le procédé de fabrication de la cellule solaire complète, notamment les étapes qui interviennent dans la formation de la jonction p-n (décapage chimique et dépôt de couche tampon) est également optimisé pour maximiser les rendements. A l’issue de ces optimisations, un rendement de 9.1% est obtenu pour une cellule solaire CZTSe, un nouveau record pour les cellules solaires à base de kesterite fabriquées par électro-dépôt. / Facing growing energy demand and increasing concerns about climate change and finite energy sources, solar energy use should increase. The future of the different photovoltaic technologies obviously depends on their power conversion efficiency and cost (summarized by the ratio cost per watt), but also on the elements availability. Thin films of earth-abundant kesterite, Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS), Cu2ZnSnSe4 (CZTSe) or Cu2ZnSn(S,Se)4 (CZTSSe), which can be manufactured with low-cost processes, are promising candidates for solar energy conversion at large scale.In this thesis, a copper tin and zinc precursor of controllable composition and thickness is electrodeposited on 15 × 15 cm2 substrates. Electrodeposition is a process compatible with high throughput low-cost and safety industry requirements. The precursor is converted into a semiconductor by thermal treatments in presence of sulfur or selenium. The resulting Cu-Zn-Sn-S or Cu-Zn-Sn-Se layers should be uniform and have adequate properties (phases, composition and morphology) to produce high efficient solar cells. Full device processing, including the pn junction formation steps (wet chemical etching and buffer layer deposition) is also investigated in order to maximize device efficiency. The best CZTSe solar cell exhibits a 9.1% powerconversion efficiency, setting a new record for kesterite solar cells produced by electrodeposition.

Le photovoltaïque (PV) s’est imposé comme un acteur majeur de l’énergie. L’innovation dans ce domaine passera sans doute par le PV à haut rendement sur des couches minces flexibles et légères permettant son déploiement dans les applications mobiles. Cette thèse étudie le développement de cellules solaires III-V à structures quantiques visant des concepts PV hauts rendements tels les cellules solaires à bande intermédiaire (IBSC). Ces IBSC se sont montrés limités du fait de l’échappement thermique des porteurs à température ambiante ainsi que la faible absorption optique sous le gap. Nous avons évalué la topologie, le mécanisme d’échappement thermique, la structure quantique ainsi que l’absorption de boites quantiques en In(Ga)As dans un matériau hôte en Al0.2GaAs à grand gap. Nous avons aussi caractérisé de manière quantitative comment opère ce système et avons amélioré son design optique. Sous une forte irradiation, nous avons mis en évidence l’apparition d’une population de porteurs chauds dans les boites quantiques. Par ailleurs, l’effet d’absorption sequentielle à deux photons (S-TPA) a été démontré. Nous avons observé une augmentation de ce S-TPA d’un facteur x5-10 grâce à du management de la lumière réalisé notamment avec des cavités de Fabry-Pérot. Des nanostructures périodiques ont aussi été fabriquées dans le cas de cellules solaires à multi-puits quantiques par l’utilisation de lithographie en nanoimpression. Dans l’ensemble cette étude vise à discuter la possibilité de réaliser des cellules solaires à porteurs chauds assistés d’une bande intermédiaire et améliorées par un management optique afin d’ouvrir la voie pour des cellules à hauts rendements. / In the past decade, photovoltaics (PV) has become a key player for the future of worldwide energy generation. Innovation in PV is likely to rely on high efficiency PV with flexible and lightweight thin films to enable PV deployement for mobile applications. In the framework of the Japanese-French laboratory “NextPV”, this thesis investigates the development of III-V quantum structured solar cells to explore high-efficiency photovoltaic concepts especially intermediate band solar cells (IBSC). Quantum structured IBSC have proven to be limited by thermal escape at room temperature and by low subbandgap light absorption. Following a consistent approach, we evaluate the topology, thermal escape mechanism, quantum structure and optical absorption of In(Ga)As quantum dots in a wide gap Al0.2GaAs host material. We also characterize quantitatively the device operation and improve the optical design. For a high irradiation, we evidence a hot carrier population in the quantum dots. At the same time, sequential two-photon absorption (S-TPA) is demonstrated both optically and electrically. We also show that S-TPA for both subbandgap transitions can be enhanced by a factor x5-10 with light management techniques, for example by implementation of Fabry-Perot cavities with the different epitaxial transfer methods that we developed. More advanced periodical nanostructures were also fabricated in the case of multi-quantum well solar cells using nanoimprint lithography techniques. Overall we discuss the possibility of realizing intermediate-band-assisted hotcarrier solar cells with light management to open the path for high-efficiency quantum structured IBSC.

Le travail porte sur les propriétés vibrationnelles de semi-conducteurs innovants, notamment les composés Cu2ZnSnSe4, Cu2ZnSnS4 de type kesterite, qui, dans le domaine du photovoltaïque, soutiennent la comparaison avec les matériaux leaders de type chalcopyrite, Cu(In,Ga)Se2. Un intérêt pratique immédiat pressenti est que les spectres de vibration devraient permettre de distinguer entre différentes phases structurales possibles à une composition donnée. Les modes de vibration sont abordés en utilisant une approche théorique premiers principes. Le manuscrit est divisé en cinq chapitres, dont le contenu est le suivant : (1) Une brève introduction sur le principe et les enjeux du photovoltaïque, les cellules solaires à base de composés semi-conducteur multinaires; le chapitre se termine par une description du diagramme de phase du système Cu-Zn-Sn-Se. (2) L’exposé de la théorie de la fonctionnelle de la densité (DFT) et la mise en œuvre de simulations numériques via le logiciel SIESTA. (3) Les propriétés vibrationnelles de Cu2ZnSnSe4 dans ses deux phases kesterite et stannite, étudiées par une méthode premiers principes, en faisant une comparaison détaillée et une analyse minutieuse mode par mode. (4) Les propriétés vibrationnelles de la phase secondaire Cu2SnSe3, une concurrente habituelle de la phase Cu2ZnSnSe4 lors de la croissance des échantillons. (5) Le calcul des phonons dans la structure Cu2ZnSnS4 contenant des défauts intrinsèques (lacunes; antisites), avec comme objectif l'évaluation des contributions vibrationnelles à l'entropie, et l'élaboration du diagramme de phases composition – température dans ce système multinaire. La conclusion générale récapitule les résultats, qui sont publiés dans 5 articles / The works addresses vibrational properties of novel semiconductors, specifically the Cu2ZnSnSe4 and Cu2ZnSnS4 compounds of the kesterite structure, which, in the domain of photovoltaics, become competitive with leading materials of chalcopyrite type, notably Cu(In,Ga)Se2. The anticipated immediate practical interest of such study is that the vibration spectra are likely to make possible a distinction between different structural phases, possible for a given composition. The vibration modes are accessed by using a first-principle theory approach. The manuscript is divided into five chapters, with the following contents: (1) A brief introduction into the work principle and the problematics of photovoltaics, specifically of the solar cells based on multinary semiconductors; the chapter closes by the description of the phase diagram of the Cu-Zn-Sn-Se system. (2) An overview of the density functional theory (DFT) and of the technics of numerical simulations using the SIESTA code. (3) The vibrational properties of Cu2ZnSnSe4 in its two phases, kesterite and stannite, as studied by first-principles method, with a detailed comparison being done along with a thorough mode-by-mode analysis. (4) Vibrational properties of a secondary phase Cu2SnSe3, which often competes with the Cu2ZnSnSe4 phase in the process of sample growth. (5) Calculation of phonons in the Cu2ZnSnS4 structure containing intrinsic defects (vacances; anti sites), with the objective of estimating vibrational contributions to entropy and the correction of the composition - temperature phase diagram in this multi nary system. The general conclusion summarises the results which are published in 5 articles

Afin de pouvoir utiliser les nouveaux matériaux semi-conducteurs dans les domaines de l’électronique et de l’optique, il faut parvenir à comprendre leur «structure électronique», ou plus précisément le positionnement des niveaux d’énergie des électrons impliqués dans l’absorption / émission d’un photon. Les propriétés électroniques, sensibles à la composition chimique et à la structure du matériau, sont théoriquement accessibles en résolvant les équations de la mécanique quantique sur ordinateur. Ce travail porte sur des simulations théoriques de la structure électronique de semi-conducteurs binaires constitués d'indium (ou du gallium) et de sélénium, ainsi que de leurs "dérivés" à base de cuivre. La stabilité relative des phases cristallographiques de certains composés In-Se et Ga-Se a été évaluée, ce qui a permis d’expliquer certaines tendances connues et de formuler des prédictions. Les résultats obtenus seront particulièrement utiles dans le domaine du photovoltaïque. Les simulations numériques ont été réalisées dans le cadre de la théorie de la fonctionnelle de la densité (DFT), visant les structures cristallines d'équilibre et les propriétés électroniques de quelques semi-conducteurs binaires ou (pseudo)ternaires à base de Cu, In, Ga et Se. Les systèmes étudiés possèdent la même structure à courte portée (environnement tétraédrique des cations et anions) mais diffèrent à longue portée. Les composés binaires (Ga/In)Se, (Ga/In)2Se3 constituent des références importantes dans les diagrammes de phases des systèmes à base de (Cu, In, Se) et (Cu, Ga, Se), au sein desquels figurent les phases potentiellement utiles dans le domaine du photovoltaïque. Le travail comprend deux chapitres d'introduction et trois chapitres exposant des résultats nouveaux / In order to optimally use new semiconductor materials in electronics or optics, one needs to understand their “electronic structure”, that is, the mutual placement of the electron energy levels concerned by the processes of absorption / emission of a photon. The electronic properties, which depend on the material’s chemical composition and crystal structure, may be assessed by theory via solving quantum-mechanical equations on a computer. The present work deals with theory simulations of electronic structure done for several binary semiconductors consisting of indium (or gallium) and selenium, moreover for their “derivatives” containing copper. As a result, the relative stability of crystallographic phases of some Ga-Se and In-Se compounds has been assessed, explaining the known trends and making predictions. The results are expected to be useful for current works in photovoltaics. The numerical simulations have been performed within the density functional theory (DFT), aimed at the equilibrium crystal structures and electronic characteristics of several binary or (pseudo)ternary semiconductors based on Cu, In, Ga and Se. The compounds under study share similar short-range order features (tetrahedral environment of both cations and anions), differently assembled on a long-range scale. The binary compounds (Ga/In)Se, (Ga/In)2Se3 mark important end points at the phase diagrams of the (Cu,In,Se) and (Cu,Ga,Se) systems that cover a number of phases relevant, e.g., for applications in photovoltaics. The work comprises two chapters of introduction and three outlining novel results

DISSERTATION - Abstract in English Three Essays on Electricity Markets Author: PhDr. Petra Luňáčková Academic Year: 2017/2018 This thesis consists of three papers that share the main theme - energy. The articles introduce characteristics and behavior of electricity focusing on its unique properties. The dissertation aims at the Czech electricity market and analyzes also highly discussed solar power plants. The first article studies long term memory properties of electricity spot prices through the detrended fluctuation analysis, as electricity prices are dominated by cycles. We conclude that Czech electricity prices are strongly mean reverting yet non-stationary. The second part of the dissertation investigates possible asymmetry in the gas - oil prices adjustment. Oil prices determine the price of electricity during the times of peak demand, as the reaction of power plants fueled by oil is quick but marginal costs are high. We chose the gasoline - crude oil relationship known as "rockets and feathers" effect and offer two new tests to analyze such type of relationship as we believe that error correction model is not the most suitable tool. Analyzing international dataset we do not find statistically significant asymmetry. The third study assesses the impact of renewable energy sources, solar plants in...

Hocheffiziente Solarzellen beruhen auf der exzellenten Oberflächenpassivierung, die minimale Rekombinationsverluste gewährleistet. Innerhalb des letzten Jahrzehnts wurde Al2O3 in der Photovoltaikindustrie zum bevorzugten Material für p-leitendes Si. Unterschiedliche Abscheidetechnologien erreichten Passivierungen mit effektiven Minoritätsladungsträgerlebensdauern nahe der AUGER–Grenze. Die ausgezeichnete Passivierungswirkung von Al2O3wird zwei Effekten zugeschrieben: Einerseits werden Si−SiO2-grenzflächennahe Rekombinationszentren passiviert, wenn Wasserstoff, beispielsweise aus der Al2O3-Schicht, offene Bindungen absättigt. Bedingt durch die hohe Konzentration intrinsischer negativer Ladungen an der SiO2-Grenzfläche weist Al2O3 andererseits einen charakteristischen Feldeffekt auf. Das resultierende elektrische Feld hält Elektronen von Oberflächenrekombinationszentren fern. Negative Ladungen im Al2O3 werden generell als fest bezeichnet. Allerdings hat Al2O3 zusätzlich eine hohe Dichte an Haftstellen, die von Elektronen besetzt werden können. Die Dichte negativer Ladungen im Al2O3-Passivierungsschichten hängt vom elektrischen Feld und der Bestrahlungsintensität ab. Ziel dieser Arbeit ist die systematische Untersuchung dielektrischer Passivierungsschichtstapel für die Anwendung auf Si-Solarzellen. Der Qualität und Dicke der SiO2-Grenzschicht kommt in diesem Kontext eine besondere Rolle zu, da sie Ladungsträgertunneln ermöglicht. Der Elektronentransport ist eine Funktion der Oxiddicke und das Optimum zwischen Ladungseinfang und -haltung liegt bei etwa 2 nm SiO2. Vier relevante Al2O3-Abscheidetechnologien werden untersucht: Atomlagenabscheidung, Kathodenzerstäubung, Sprühpyrolyse und Rotationsbeschichtung, wobei die erstgenannte dominiert. Es werden Nanolaminate verglichen, die aus Al2O3 und TiO2, HfO2 oder SiO2 mit subnanometerdicken Zwischenschichten bestehen. Während letztgenannte die Oberflächenrekombination nicht vermindern, beeinflussen TiO2- und HfO2-Nanolaminate die Passivierungswirkung. Ein dynamisches Wachstumsmodell, das initiale und stationäre Wachstumsraten der beteiligten Metalloxide berücksichtigt, beschreibt die physikalischen Parameter. Schichtsysteme mit 0,2 % TiO2 oder 7 % HfO2 sind konventionellen Al2O3-Schichten überlegen. In beiden Fällen überwiegt die veränderte Feldeffekt- der chemischen Passivierung, die mit einer Grenzflächenzustandsdichte von maximal 5·1010 eV−1·cm−2 unverändert auf hohem Niveau verbleibt. Die Ladungsdichte beider Schichtsysteme wird entweder über die Änderung ihrer Polarität der festen Ladungen oder der Fähigkeit zum Ladungseinfang bestimmt. Das Tunneln von Elektronen wird durch ein mathematisches Modell erklärt, dass eine bewegliche Ladungsfront innerhalb der Oxidschicht beschreibt. / High-efficiency solar cells rely on excellent passivation of the surface to ensure minimal recombination losses. In the last decade, Al2O3 became the material of choice for p-type Si in the photovoltaic industry. A remarkable surface passivation with effective minority carrier lifetimes close to the AUGER–limit was demonstrated with different deposition techniques. The excellent passivation effect of Al2O3 is attributed to two effects: Firstly, recombination centers at the Si−SiO2 interface get chemically passivated when hydrogen, for instance from the Al2O3 layer, saturates dangling bonds. Secondly, Al2O3 presents an outstanding level of field effect passivation due to its high concentration of intrinsic negative charges close to the SiO2 interface. The generated electrical field effectively repels electrons from surface recombination centers. Negative charges in Al2O3 are generally termed fixed charges. However, Al2O3 incorporates a high density of trap sites, too, that can be occupied by electrons. It was shown that the negative charge density in Al2O3 passivation layers depends on the electrical field and on the illumination intensity. The goal of this work is to systematically investigate dielectric passivation layer stacks for application on Si solar cells. The SiO2 interface quality and thickness plays a major role in this context, enabling or inhibiting carrier tunneling. Since the electron transport is a function of the oxide thickness, the balance between charge trapping and retention is achieved with approximately 2 nm of SiO2. Additionally, four relevant Al2O3 deposition techniques are compared: atomic layer deposition, sputtering, spray pyrolysis and spin–on coating, whereas the former is predominant. Using its flexibility, laminates comprising of Al2O3 and TiO2, HfO2 or SiO2 with subnanometer layers are compared. Although the latter do not show decreased surface recombination, nanolaminates with TiO2 and HfO2 contribute to the passivation. Their physical properties are described with a dynamic growth model that considers initial and steady–state growth rates for the involved metal oxides. Thin films with 0.2 % TiO2 or 7 % HfO2 are superior to conventional Al2O3 layers. In both cases, the modification of the field effect prevails the chemical effect, that is, however, virtually unchanged on a very high level with a density of interface traps of 5·1010 eV−1·cm−2 and below. The density of charges in both systems is changed via modifying either the polarity of intrinsic fixed charges or the ability of trapping charges within the layers. The observations of electron tunneling are explained by means of a mathematical model, describing a charging front, which moves through the dielectric layer.

The global solar PV market is growing fast, and so is the production and trade with photovoltaic products and peripherals. Until now, the largest development has taken place in highly developed and electrified countries with good administrative control over their electricity system. Recently, however, new markets in developing countries have become increasingly relevant in terms of market share, system sizes and installed capacities. Statistics from these types of countries are often weak or non-existent, leading to problems for global organizations such as the International Energy Agency (IEA) or the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), whose task is to follow, analyze and document named development.  In this report, a method is presented in which customs data monitored by the ‘Market Analysis and Research’ section of the International Trade Centre, an agency of UN’s World Trade Organization, is analyzed and converted into annual installed PV capacity volumes. By complementing the basic data from the customs database with price statistics from IEA PVPS task 1 along with national module production data from IEA PVPS task 1 and the RTS cooperation a data conversion is executed.  The method has been improved incrementally, where different assumptions have been modified or added, so that the data conversion of exported and imported PV products, expressed in dollar per yearly quarter, match the official statistics of annual installed capacity for a number of reference countries with comprehensive PV capacity statistics. The sensitivity analysis shows that the method is sensitive to the accuracy of the annual domestic national PV module production data and to price changes of Chinese PV modules. For countries with accurate PV module production data, or countries with no module production, the method seems to be able to estimate the annual installed capacity in 2018 with an average difference of 21% and a maximum difference of ±38% and a total average difference of 12%, 17% and 11% for 2016, 2017 and 2018 respectively.  By implementing this method, an estimate on yearly installed capacities can be generated in all countries connected to the UN customs database and where the domestic module production is known. This gives the opportunity to at least get an assessment of how much PV that has been installed in developing countries that lack official statistics about their domestic PV market. The regions with the lowest existing data coverage in the world have been determined to be Africa and the Middle East. When applying the method on countries in Africa and the Middle East, larger capacities than the reference data were obtained.