Delay to antibiotic treatment of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) greater than 4 hours following hospital admission is associated with a 15% increase in mortality. Paper-based guidelines have been widely introduced to improve CAP care, but these interventions have under-performed due to poor compliance in complex clinical workflows. Unlike passive paper-based guidelines, alerting systems based on computer-based decision support systems (CDSS) have the capacity to actively draw attention to delayed clinical processes. Formal consideration of local workflow is key to the design and successful implementation of CDSS. I used workflow analysis techniques to develop an evidence-based alerting system designed to reduce the delay to treatment of CAP in the emergency department (ED) of an Australian tertiary hospital. A sample of 6 CAP patients were observed during October 2001 to derive a structural process flow model, which was refined via stakeholder interview. A deterministic process flow model was then developed using an existing retrospectively compiled CAP database, consisting of 246 patients admitted June-December 1998 and 146 patients admitted May-December 2000. A stratified control sample presenting with respiratory symptoms (n=74, January-December 2003) was collected for the assessment of diagnosis and chest x-ray (CXR) accuracy. Treatment delay greater than 4 hours was associated with failure to diagnose CAP in the ED, the absence of CXR evidence, low triage score, delayed CXR, and failure to treat in the ED. ED physicians only identified 54-57% of those discharged with CAP. Radiologists only reported CAP features in 47% - 67% of initial CXRs for these patients. I hypothesised that a CDSS-based alerting system, composed of a CAP early diagnosis model (EDM) and a simple risk model (CRB-65), would identify enough CAP patients to reduce the percentage treated after 4 hours. I constructed an evidence-based naïve Bayesian EDM (sensitivity = 36%, specificity = 93%). It was able to identify 24% of CAP patients that died in hospital, 38% of those with antibiotics delayed greater than 4 hours, and 26% of those with CXR delayed greater than 4 hours. CAP-specific risk models were equivalent to the Australasian Triage Score (ATS) in predicting mortality. I simulated alerting policy by combining the CDSS with the deterministic process flow model. Alerting for treatment at triage or initial physician assessment, when the EDM was positive, approximately halved the median treatment time of 5.53 hours, and decreased the number treated after 4 hours (62%) by 1/3. Treating EDM-positive patients as ATS category 2 produced a similar effect. Current triage practices, embodied mainly by the disease-independent, sign and symptom based ATS are too coarse to deal with conditions such as CAP, where there is high diagnostic uncertainty and delays in diagnosis and treatment are critical determinants of outcomes. Better outcomes may be achieved with quicker diagnostic and treatment workflows via: analysis of current diagnosis and treatment workflows, analysis and correlation of a comprehensive set of patient symptoms, signs and risk factors for the specific disease, and improving triaging and subsequent workflow through a disease-specific CDSS based on early diagnostic models derived from the previous analyses. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1374804 / Thesis (Ph.D.) - University of Adelaide, School of Medicine, 2009

<p>Ventilator-associerad pneumoni (VAP) är den vanligaste infektionen på intensivvårdsavdelningar. Det är en komplikation som orsakar stort lidande, ökad mortalitet och medför höga vårdkostnader. Det finns många evidensbaserade riktlinjer för att förhindra att VAP uppstår, där sjuksköterskan har en betydande roll. Flera studier har visat att det finns brister i sjuksköterskans kunskap att tillämpa de evidensbaserade riktlinjerna för att förhindra uppkomsten av VAP. Syftet med studien var att beskriva intensivvårdsjuksköterskors tillämpning av de evidensbaserade riktlinjerna för att förhindra uppkomsten av ventilatorassocierad pneumoni hos intensivvårdspatienter samt att jämföra tillämpningen av riktlinjer mellan subgrupper. En strukturerad enkät delades ut till alla intensivvårdsjuksköterskor (N=40) på en intensivvårdsavdelning i mellansverige, varav 30 besvarade enkäten. Resultatet visade att intensivvårdsjuksköterskorna tillämpar de evidensbaserade riktlinjerna i hög utsträckning utifrån självskattningar. Det framkom inga signifikanta skillnader mellan de med kort (0-5 år) och lång (>5 år) erfarenhet som intensivvårdsjuksköterska, vad gäller i vilken utsträckning de använder de evidensbaserade riktlinjerna för att förhindra uppkomsten av VAP. Kunskapen och tillämpningen av de evidensbaserade riktlinjerna kan anses vara god hos respondenterna i föreliggande studie utifrån självskattningar. I det närmaste alla respondenter hade fått utbildning/information om VAP vilket kan vara orsaken till det resultat som framkom. Många tidigare studier har visat att utbildning ökar tillämpningen av de evidensbaserade riktlinjerna.</p> / <p>Ventilator-associated pneumonia is the most common infection in the intensive care unit. It is a complication that causes major morbidity, increased mortality and growing healthcare costs. There are many evidence-based clinical practice guidelines in order to prevent that VAP arises, where the nurse has a significant role. Several studies have established that there is deficiencies in the nurse's knowledge to apply to the evidence-based guidelines in order to prevent the origin of VAP. The aim with the study was to describe intensive care unit nurses' application of the evidence-based guidelines in order to prevent the origin of VAP at intensive care patients and to compare the application of the evidence-based guidelines between subgroups. A structured questionnaire was distributed out to all intensive care nurses (N=40) on an intensive care unit in the middle of Sweden, of which 30 responded to the questionnaire. The result showed that the intensive care nurses apply to the evidence-based guidelines in a high extent on the basis of self-reports. There were no significant differences between they with short (0-5 year) and long (> 5 year) experience as an intensive care nurse, as regards in what extent they use the evidence-based guidelines in order to prevent the origin of VAP. The respondents knowledge and application of the evidence-based guidelines can be considered to be good in this study, on the basis of self-reports. Most of the respondents had got education/information about VAP, what can have caused the result that appeared. Many previous studies have shown that education increases the application of the evidence-based guidelines.</p>

The general aim was to explore factors influencing the normal variation and measurement of body temperature. Additional aims were to study morbidity, mortality and the clinical presentation of pneumonia and predictors for survival in elderly nursing-home residents. Two hundred and thirty seven non-febrile nursing home residents (aged 66-99 years) and 87 healthy adults (aged 19-59 years) were included. In elderly individuals, the morning ear and rectal body temperature was measured at baseline and pneumonia and survival was observed at one- two and three-year. In healthy adults the rectal, ear, oral and axillary temperature were measured simultaneously on one morning and repeated measurements were performed in three subjects. Overall, the range of normal body temperature was wider then traditionally stated. In elderly nursinghome residents, functional and cognitive impairment and BMI &lt; 20 were related to a lower body temperature and medication with analgesics to a higher. Compared to adults &lt; 60 years elderly persons had a higher average ear and a lower rectal temperature. Men and postmenopausal women &lt; 60 years had lower body temperature than premenopausal women. The repeated measurements showed a wide individual variability irrespective of the site of measurement, and that replicated measurements do not improve accuracy. When comparing the rectal temperature with oral, ear and axillary readings the average difference was &gt; 0.5°C with a wide individual variation. The yearly incidence of nursing-home acquired pneumonia varied between 6.9% and 13.7%. Functional impairment, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and male sex were related to a higher risk of acquiring pneumonia and presenting non-specific symptoms were common. Age and functional impairment predicted mortality, irrespective of gender, while cerebral vascular insult, a lower body mass index and malnutrition in women and heart disease, COPD, medication with sedatives and mortality rate index in men were gender specific predictors. Surviving women had a higher baseline body temperature than non-surviving, while no such difference was found in men. When assessing body temperature, it is important to consider the site of measurement, technical design, operator technique, age and gender and, in elderly nursing-home residents, physical and cognitive impairment, body constitution and medication with analgesics. The best approach is to use an unadjusted mode, without adjusting to another site. To prevent a delayed diagnosis of pneumonia, one should be aware of a low baseline body temperature and lack of specific clinical symptoms in elderly nursing-home residents. Preserving and/or improving functional, cognitive, nutritional status and preventing agitation and confusion would improve survival in nursing-home residents.

PCR is a rapid, reproducible method for nucleic acid detection. However, this technology displays significant deficiencies when applied in clinical microbiology. This work’s aim was to improve current diagnostics and provide sensitive and quantitative real-time PCRs. Paper I describes the development of a sensitive and specific quantitative real-time PCR for the detection of Streptococcus pneumoniae, based on the Spn9802 DNA fragment. Applied to nasopharyngeal aspirates from 166 pneumonia patients, Spn9802 PCR had a sensitivity of 94% and a specificity of 98%. In Paper II the performance of a ply gene PCR for identification of pneumococcal lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI) was evaluated on bronchoalveloar lavage fluids. At the detection limit 103 genome copies/mL, 89% sensitivity but only 43% specificity was achieved. Paper III shows that S. pneumoniae DNA is detectable in plasma from acutely febrile patients. Sensitivities were low (26-42%) for detection of pneumococcal pneumonia, for bacteraemic pneumococcal pneumonia they were 60-70%. Paper IV describes evaluation of four PCR targets for Haemophilus influenzae detection. A real-time PCR based on the P6 gene was developed and applied to 166 CAP patients, using cut-off of 104 genome copies/mL the assay had a sensitivity of 97% and a specificity of 96%. In paper V, the two real-time PCRs presented in papers I and IV were combined with a PCR for detection of Neisseriae meningitidis. The analytical sensitivity of this multiplex real-time PCR was not affected by using a mixture of reagents and a combined DNA standard (S. pneumoniae/H. influenzae) in single tubes. Applied to 156 LRTI patients, this PCR had sensitivities over 90% for S. pneumoniae and H. influenzae, and specificities of 89% and 96%, respectively. In conclusion, real-time PCR assays are useful for the diagnosis of S. pneumoniae and H. influenzae. They enable detection after antibiotic installation, and quantification increases the etiological specificity of pneumonia.

Ventilator-associerad pneumoni (VAP) är den vanligaste infektionen på intensivvårdsavdelningar. Det är en komplikation som orsakar stort lidande, ökad mortalitet och medför höga vårdkostnader. Det finns många evidensbaserade riktlinjer för att förhindra att VAP uppstår, där sjuksköterskan har en betydande roll. Flera studier har visat att det finns brister i sjuksköterskans kunskap att tillämpa de evidensbaserade riktlinjerna för att förhindra uppkomsten av VAP. Syftet med studien var att beskriva intensivvårdsjuksköterskors tillämpning av de evidensbaserade riktlinjerna för att förhindra uppkomsten av ventilatorassocierad pneumoni hos intensivvårdspatienter samt att jämföra tillämpningen av riktlinjer mellan subgrupper. En strukturerad enkät delades ut till alla intensivvårdsjuksköterskor (N=40) på en intensivvårdsavdelning i mellansverige, varav 30 besvarade enkäten. Resultatet visade att intensivvårdsjuksköterskorna tillämpar de evidensbaserade riktlinjerna i hög utsträckning utifrån självskattningar. Det framkom inga signifikanta skillnader mellan de med kort (0-5 år) och lång (&gt;5 år) erfarenhet som intensivvårdsjuksköterska, vad gäller i vilken utsträckning de använder de evidensbaserade riktlinjerna för att förhindra uppkomsten av VAP. Kunskapen och tillämpningen av de evidensbaserade riktlinjerna kan anses vara god hos respondenterna i föreliggande studie utifrån självskattningar. I det närmaste alla respondenter hade fått utbildning/information om VAP vilket kan vara orsaken till det resultat som framkom. Många tidigare studier har visat att utbildning ökar tillämpningen av de evidensbaserade riktlinjerna. / Ventilator-associated pneumonia is the most common infection in the intensive care unit. It is a complication that causes major morbidity, increased mortality and growing healthcare costs. There are many evidence-based clinical practice guidelines in order to prevent that VAP arises, where the nurse has a significant role. Several studies have established that there is deficiencies in the nurse's knowledge to apply to the evidence-based guidelines in order to prevent the origin of VAP. The aim with the study was to describe intensive care unit nurses' application of the evidence-based guidelines in order to prevent the origin of VAP at intensive care patients and to compare the application of the evidence-based guidelines between subgroups. A structured questionnaire was distributed out to all intensive care nurses (N=40) on an intensive care unit in the middle of Sweden, of which 30 responded to the questionnaire. The result showed that the intensive care nurses apply to the evidence-based guidelines in a high extent on the basis of self-reports. There were no significant differences between they with short (0-5 year) and long (&gt; 5 year) experience as an intensive care nurse, as regards in what extent they use the evidence-based guidelines in order to prevent the origin of VAP. The respondents knowledge and application of the evidence-based guidelines can be considered to be good in this study, on the basis of self-reports. Most of the respondents had got education/information about VAP, what can have caused the result that appeared. Many previous studies have shown that education increases the application of the evidence-based guidelines.

No description available.

La neumonía adquirida en la comunidad (NAC) continúa siendo en la actualidad una enfermedad potencialmente grave, que con frecuencia presenta una evolución desfavorable, a pesar del tratamiento antibiótico adecuado. La hipótesis de la tesis plantea que es posible monitorizar la respuesta inflamatoria que tiene lugar durante la NAC y, que dicha respuesta, puede ser influenciada por los antibióticos utilizados en su tratamiento, así como modulada mediante una terapia adyuvante con corticoides. Con la intención de demostrar esta hipótesis, se desarrollaron dos estudios prospectivos y un ensayo randomizado. En el primer estudio, se incluyeron consecutivamente 38 pacientes que ingresaron con NAC con extensa afectación radiológica e insuficiencia respiratoria. En todos ellos, se realizó una determinación seriada de citocinas (TNF-alfa, IL-1beta, IL-6, IL-8 e IL-10) en el momento del ingreso y en los días 1, 2, 3, 5 y 7 de tratamiento. En el segundo estudio, se incluyeron consecutivamente 52 pacientes con neumonía neumocócica. En este estudio, se comparó la respuesta inflamatoria en los pacientes tratados con beta-lactámicos con aquellos que recibieron terapia combinada: beta-lactámicos más fluoroquinolona. En todos los pacientes, se realizó una determinación seriada de citocinas en sangre. Finalmente, se llevó a cabo un ensayo randomizado, doble ciego, metilprenisolona vs placebo, en el que se incluyeron 56 pacientes con NAC con extensa afectación radiológica e insuficiencia respiratoria. Todos los pacientes recibieron tratamiento con ceftriaxona y levofloxacino, y de manera randomizada y doble ciego, se administró un bolus de metilprednisolona o placebo, 30 minutos antes del inicio del antibiótico seguido de una pauta descendente de nueve días de duración. Los resultados de la tesis sugieren que es posible detectar la presencia de las citocinas estudiadas en sangre venosa. Sin embargo, sólo las citocinas IL-6, IL-8 e IL-10 fueron detectadas en todos los pacientes con neumonía en el momento del ingreso, con un rápido descenso a las 48 horas que coincidió con la defervescencia clínica. Respecto a la relación entre respuesta inflamatoria y pronóstico de la neumonía, las concentraciones iniciales de citocinas fueron superiores y se mantuvieron más tiempo elevadas en los pacientes que evolucionaron desfavorablemente. Entre los objetivos de la tesis se incluía estudiar el impacto del tratamiento antibiótico sobre la respuesta inflamatoria en la neumonía neumocócica. Los resultados de la tesis muestran que la terapia combinada (beta-lactámico y fluoroquinolona) produjo un descenso más rápido de las concentraciones de IL-6 a las 48 horas de tratamiento. Finalmente, el objetivo principal de la tesis fue demostrar que la asociación de corticoides como terapia adyuvante anti-inflamatoria en el tratamiento de la NAC podría ser beneficiosa. Los resultados de la tesis muestran que en pacientes con NAC que ingresaron con insuficiencia respiratoria y una extensa afectación radiológica, la administración de metilprednisolona en combinación con el tratamiento antibiótico se asoció a mejor evolución de varias variables clínicas como el cociente pO2/FiO2, la resolución radiológica y la escala del “time to resolution of morbidity” (TRM), así como a una reducción de la necesidad de ventilación mecánica. El efecto beneficioso de los corticoides sobre el curso clínico se reflejó asimismo en el comportamiento de los marcadores inflamatorios. Las concentraciones en sangre de IL-6 y proteína C reactiva fueron inferiores y disminuyeron más rápidamente en los pacientes tratados con metilprednisolona. / The community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) remains an important cause of disease worldwide. Despite advances in diagnostic methods and antibiotic treatment, the morbidity and mortality of NAC remain high. The hypothesis of the thesis suggests that it is possible to monitor the inflammatory response that occurs during the NAC and that this response may be influenced by antibiotics used to treat it, and modulated by adjuvant therapy with corticosteroids. In order to demonstrate this hypothesis, we developed two prospective studies and a randomized trial. In the first study, a total of 38 consecutive patients with CAP and with extensive radiographic involvement and respiratory failure were prospectively included. For all cases, serial determination of cytokines (TNF- alpha, IL-1beta, IL-6, IL-8 and IL-10) were obtained at the time of admission and on days 1, 2, 3, 5 and 7 of treatment. In the second study, 52 consecutive patients with pneumococcal pneumonia were prospectively included. Concentrations of circulating were determined for all patients. To asses the effects of treatment on the systemic expression of cytokine production, patients were divided into two groups: those initially treated only with beta-lactam (beta-lactam group) and those initially treated with combination therapy including beta-lactams plus fluoroquinolone (combination therapy group). Finally, we conducted a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, which included 56 patients admitted with CAP and with extensive radiographic involvement and respiratory failure. All patients were treated with ceftriaxone and levofloxacin, and were randomly assigned to treatment with corticosteroid therapy, administered in the form of a methyl-prednisolone bolus given prior to antibiotic treatment followed by a tapering of nine days. The results of the thesis suggest that all studied cytokine, except for IL-1beta, could be detected in venous blood. However, only the cytokines IL-6, IL-8 and IL-10 were detected in all patients with pneumonia on admission, with a significant decrease at 48 hours that correlate with the clinical defervescence. Regarding the relationship between inflammatory response and prognosis of pneumonia, the initial concentrations of cytokines were higher and remained elevated longer in patients who poor outcome. Finally, the main objective of the thesis was to demonstrate that the use of corticosteroids as an adjunct therapy for pneumonia could prevent an excessive inflammatory response, improving the prognosis of more severe episodes of CAP. The results of the tesis show that in patients with CAP admitted with respiratory failure and extensive radiographic involment, the administration of methyl-prednisolone in combination with antibiotic treatment was associated with better outcomes of several clinical variables as the ratio pO2/FiO2, radiological resolution and scale “time to resolution of morbidity” (TRM), and a reduced need for mechanical ventilation. The beneficial effect of corticosteroids on the clinical course was also reflected in the behavior of inflammatory markers. Blood concentrations of IL-6 and C- reactive protein were lower and quickly reduced in patients treated with methyl-prednisolone.

El tracte dels pacients amb pneumonia adquirida en la comunitat (PNAC) que no responen al tractament antibiòtic inicial constitueix un repte per al clínic. Aquest estudi va investigar la utilitat dels canvis en els nivells de la proteïna C reactiva (PCR) per tal de discriminar entre el fracàs terapèuticc vertader i la resposta lenta al tractament. MÈTODES Aquest estudi multicèntric prospectiu observacionasl va investigar el comportament dels nivells de PCR en plasma els dies 1 i 4 en pacients adults hospitalitzats diagnosticats de PNAC. Es determinaren els nivells de PCR en sang els dies 1 i 4. En acabar el procés, els pacients que no respongueren (que no havien assolit l’estabilitat el dia 4), foren classificats en: a) fracàs terapèutic vertader, quan la teràpia antibiòtica s’hagué de canviar i/o es realitzaren procediments terapèutics invasius, o b) resposta lenta al tractament quan s’obtingué l’estabilitat clínica sense canvis respecte al tractament antibiòtic empíric inicial. RESULTATS Al dia 4, 78 (27,4%) de 285 pacients no assoliren l’estabilitat clínica. D’aquests, 56 (71,8%) pacients es curaren sense canvi en el tractament antibiòtic inicial (mortalitat del 0,0%), i en 22 (28,2%) pacients, el tractament inicial s’hagué de modificar (mortalitat 40,9%). Al dia 4, els nivells de PCR davallaren en 52 (92,9%) pacients amb resposta lenta al tractament i només en 7 (31,8%) pacients amb fracàs terapèutic vertader (p < 0,001). Un model desenvolupat que inclogué els valors de PCR i els de la freqüència respiratòria al dia 4, identificà els pacients amb fracàs terapèutic vertader. L’àrea sota la corba ROC obtinguda amb aquest model fou de 0,87 (IC 95% , 0,780 a 0,966). CONCLUSIÓ Els canvis dels valors de PCR són útils per a discriminar entre el fracàs terapèutic vertader i la resposta lenta al tractament, i poden ajudar el clínic a prendre decisions en el tracte dels pacients amb PNAC que no milloren. / INTRODUCCION El manejo de los pacientes con neumonía adquirida en la comunidad (NAC) que no responden al tratamiento antibiótico inicial constituye un reto para el clínico. Este estudio investigó la utilidad de los cambios en los niveles de la proteína C reactiva (PCR) para discriminar entre fracaso terapéutico verdadero y respuesta lenta al tratamiento. METODOS Este estudio multicéntrico prospectivo observacional, investigó el comportamiento de los niveles de PCR en plasma en los días 1 y 4 en pacientes adultos hospitalizados con diagnóstico de NAC . Se determinaron los niveles de PCR en sangre los días 1 y 4. Al finalizar el proceso, los pacientes no respondedores (que no habían alcanzado la estabilidad para el día 4) fueron clasificados en a) fracaso terapéutico verdadero, cuando la terapia antibiótica tuvo que ser cambiada y/o se realizaron procedimientos terapéuticos invasivos; o b) respuesta lenta al tratamiento cuando se alcanzó la estabilidad clínica sin cambios respecto al tratamiento antibiótico empírico inicial. RESULTADOS Al día 4, 78 (27,4%) de 285 pacientes no alcanzaron la estabilidad clínica. De estos, 56 (71,8%) pacientes se curaron sin cambio del tratamiento antibiótico inicial (mortalidad de 0,0%); y en 22 (28,2%) pacientes el tratamiento antibiótico inicial tuvo que ser modificado (mortalidad 40,9%). Al día 4, los niveles de PCR descendieron en 52 (92,9%) pacientes con respuesta lenta al tratamiento y solo en 7 (31,8%) pacientes con fracaso terapéutico verdadero (p<0.001). Un modelo desarrollado que incluyó los valores de PCR y los de la frecuencia respiratoria al día 4, identificó a los pacientes con fracaso terapéutico verdadero. El área bajo la curva ROC obtenida con este modelo fue de 0,87 (IC 95%, 0,780 a 0,966). CONCLUSION Los cambios de los valores de PCR son útiles para discriminar entre el fracaso terapéutico verdadero y la respuesta lenta al tratamiento; y pueden ayudar al clínico a tomar decisiones en el manejo de los pacientes con NAC que no mejoran. / BACKGROUND The management of patients with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) who fail to improve constitutes a challenge for clinicians. This study investigated the usefulness of C-reactive protein (CRP) changes in discriminating true treatment failure from slow response to treatment. METHODS This prospective multicenter observational study investigated the behavior of plasma CRP levels on days 1 and 4 in hospitalized patients with CAP.We identified non-responding patients as those who had not reached clinical stability by day 4. Among them, true treatment failure and slow response situations were defined when initial therapy had to be changed or not after day 4 by attending clinicians, respectively. RESULTS By day 4, 78 (27.4%) out of 285 patients had not reached clinical stability. Among them, 56 (71.8%) patients were cured without changes in initial therapy (mortality 0.0%), and in 22 (28.2%) patients, the initial empirical therapy needed to be changed (mortality 40.9%). By day 4, CRP levels fell in 52 (92.9%) slow responding and only in 7 (31.8%) late treatment failure patients (p<0.001). A model developed including CRP behavior and respiratory rate at day 4 identified treatment failure patients with an area under the Receiver Operating Characteristic curve of 0.87 (CI 95%, 0.78–0.96). CONCLUSION Changes in CRP levels are useful to discriminate between true treatment failure and slow response to treatment and can help clinicians in management decisions when CAP patients fail to improve

Objective¡G The purpose of this research is (1) to find out the overall trends of the common avoidable hospitalization diseases in Taiwan since the implementation of the National Health Insurance (NHI), (2) to compare the different distributions of the common avoidable hospitalization diseases across age groups, genders, regions, and the hospital¡¦s characters, (3) to make the related useful information and suggestions of improving avoidable hospitalizations to the policy makers, hospitals, and the general public. Method¡G Standardized rates of avoidable hospitalization from 1997 to 2004 were derived from the National Health Insurance database and the Taiwan census data. In this research, we focus on the four main diseases¡GAsthma, Pneumonia, Diabetes, Hypertension as the avoidable hospitalization diseases. Logistic regression and chi-squire tests are used to detect and describes trends in data. Results¡G During the 8-year research period, AHCs (Avoidable Hospitalization Conditions)of Asthma and Hypertension decline overall, conversely, AHCs of Pneumonia and Diabetes show increasing trends overall¡Fin the hospital characters aspects, AHCs are mostly occurred in the local hospitals¡Ffrom the viewpoint of the patients¡¦ characters, AHCs of Asthma and Pneumonia are always occurred in children male, on the other hand, AHCs of Diabetes and Hypertension are always occurred in female and above 65 years old¡Fin the regional aspect, the AHCs of Asthma and Pneumonia are comparatively higher in east Taiwan. Conclusion¡G According to the results of this research, we can find that the avoidable hospitalizations in Taiwan still need to be improved. We suggest the policy makers and the hospitals may use the ¡uavoidable hospitalization¡vas an indicator to monitor the quality of care and the outpatient care quality in Taiwan¡¦s healthcare system. Thus can not only reduce the unnecessary expenditure, but also can offer the general public better quality of healthcare and improve their quality of life.

BACKGROUND: Streptococcus pneumoniae is the primary causative agent of pneumonia in older adults. Vaccination is the only tool to protect against pneumococcal infection; however, vaccination rates remain far below the Healthy People 2010 objective of 90% coverage. The number one reason for such low rates is attributed to controversy over the protective efficacy of the vaccine in preventing nonbacteremic pneumonia (eg, community-acquired pneumonia [CAP]). OBJECTIVES: The primary objectives of this study were to assess the incidence of pneumonia, pneumonia requiring hospitalization, and pneumonia hospitalization costs. METHODS: In this retrospective cohort study of Medicare beneficiaries aged 65 years in 2003, subjects were selected based on exposure status. Exposure was defined as receipt of the 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPV23). Vaccinated persons were then matched 1:1 on gender and the presence of any comorbidity to unvaccinated persons. Subjects were followed up for 1 year (January 1, 2004 through December 31, 2004). The primary outcomes were pneumonia, pneumonia requiring hospitalization, and hospitalization costs. Mantel-Haenszel chi-square or logit was used to estimate the relative risk (RR) associated with vaccination and each outcome and Proc Ttest was used to test the difference between mean hospital costs of the vaccinated and non-vaccinated. RESULTS: During the follow-up period, 443 patients were diagnosed with pneumonia; 266 had previously been vaccinated and 177 had no documented receipt of prior vaccination. Results of the Chi-square analysis revealed a significant association between vaccination and the risk of pneumonia, as the vaccinated were 50% more likely to develop pneumonia than were the non-vaccinated (Adjusted RR: 1.50; 95% CI: 1.25, 1.81). Approximately 67% of patients diagnosed with pneumonia required hospitalization; of which, 183 were previously vaccinated and 115 had no documented receipt of prior vaccination. There was no association between vaccination and risk of pneumonia requiring hospitalization (P value 0.4001). However, the vaccine was associated with a significant reduction in hospital costs (P value 0.004). CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study suggest that use of the vaccine may be associated with cost savings due to a reduction in hospitalization.